Reposted from the web

Summary: This block continues the Crimean Khanate site and mosque section from Islamic World in 1550, preserving the original order of text and images.

The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, so everyone who enters has to lower their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, fiqh, or Islamic law, theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a wartime sanatorium used by German military personnel, and a mental health clinic after the war. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.





Block 2 of 2 for Part 1A-1b-1 view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This block continues the Crimean Khanate site and mosque section from Islamic World in 1550, preserving the original order of text and images.

The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.





Block 2 of 2 for Part 1A-1b-1 view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This block continues the Crimean Khanate section of Islamic World in 1550, preserving the same site names, captions, mosque details, images, and historical facts from the Chinese source.



The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.





Block 1 of 4 for Part 1A-1b view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This block continues the Crimean Khanate section of Islamic World in 1550, preserving the same site names, captions, mosque details, images, and historical facts from the Chinese source.



The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.











The Iron Gate (Demir Qapı) is the oldest structure in the Khan's Palace. It was built between 1503 and 1504 for the Crimean Khan by the architect Aleviz Novy, who had been invited by Ivan the Great to build churches in Moscow. The Iron Gate was likely first built at the Crimean Khan's previous residence, Devlet-Saray, and moved to the main palace building after the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was completed in 1532. "Demir Qapı" means "iron gate" in Crimean Tatar. The doorway is made of limestone and features Lombard-Venetian Renaissance decorative styles.











The Great Khan Mosque (Büyük Han Cami) in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was built in 1532 and is one of the earliest structures in the palace. The original mosque had multiple domes, similar to the Seljuk-style mosques popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1736. It was later restored by Khan Selamet II Giray (who reigned from 1740 to 1743) and converted to a tiled roof.

During the Soviet era, the mosque was closed and turned into an exhibition hall for the archaeological museum. After Russia occupied Crimea in 2014, the mosque underwent repairs, some of which caused damage to the building.



















The SaryGuzel Bathhouse was built in 1532 by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray. Like the Great Khan Mosque, it is one of the earliest buildings in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace. In Crimean Tatar, "Sarı" means "yellow or fair-skinned," and "Güzel" means "beautiful." The SaryGuzel Bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath. A furnace in the basement heated the floor with rising hot air, and cold and hot water were supplied through lead pipes. The bathhouse is divided into men's and women's sections, each with its own dome. The domes have star-shaped cutouts for ventilation and light, and there is an indoor courtyard with a fountain at the exit.

The SaryGuzel Bathhouse operated until 1924, when it was closed because it was considered unsafe. It has since been repaired and is now open for exhibitions.















The Khan's cemetery holds the grave of the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray (reigned 1551–1577). He was appointed Kalga (the second-in-command after the Khan) in 1530. Later, due to court struggles, he went to Istanbul and gradually gained the trust of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1551, with the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, he became the Crimean Khan.



Block 2 of 2 for Part 1A-1 view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Mongol Empire Legacy and Muslim History (Part 1A) is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Mongol Empire, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. This time, we will visit 12 countries ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North Asia and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the early 13th century, as the Mongol Empire expanded, Genghis Khan began dividing his lands among his sons. Orda and Batu, the sons of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, received lands in southern Russia and Kazakhstan, which gradually formed the Golden Horde. Hulagu Khan, the son of Genghis Khan's fourth son Tolui, received lands in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and parts of West Asia, which gradually formed the Ilkhanate. After the Yuan Dynasty was established in 1271, the original families of Ogedei and Chagatai, led by Kaidu, opposed Kublai Khan. This led to the formation of the Ogedei Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate, completing the four great Mongol khanates.

After the 14th century, the territory of the Ogedei Khanate was first divided between the Chagatai Khanate and the Yuan Dynasty, and later the Ilkhanate and the Chagatai Khanate also began to split apart. The Golden Horde was the last to decline, splitting into several khanates in the early 15th century.

In 1550, there were 12 countries and regimes established by descendants of Genghis Khan, ruling a vast area from Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and China's Xinjiang to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. They were:

1. The Crimean Khanate ruled the Crimean Peninsula.

2. The Astrakhan Khanate ruled the Volga Delta.

3. The Nogai Horde ruled the region between the Volga and Ural rivers.

4. The Qasim Khanate ruled Kasimov in the modern-day Ryazan Oblast of Russia.

5. The Kazan Khanate ruled the middle Volga region.

6. The Siberian Khanate ruled the area around the Irtysh River.

7. The Kazakh Khanate ruled the Kazakh Steppe.

8. The Khanate of Khiva ruled the Khwarezm region.

9. The Khanate of Bukhara ruled the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

10. The Yarkent Khanate ruled the southern Xinjiang region.

11. Haidar ruled the Kashmir region.

12. The Arghun dynasty ruled southern Afghanistan and the Sindh region of Pakistan.

Additionally, the Mughal Empire was briefly overthrown at this time, and its second emperor, Humayun, was in exile in Persia.

1. The Crimean Khanate in Ukraine (1441–1783).

We start this journey on the Crimean Peninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea.

The Khan of the Crimean Khanate was a descendant of Tuka-Timur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was Genghis Khan's eldest son. In the 1260s, the Golden Horde gave the Crimean Peninsula to the ancestor of the Crimean Khans, Uran Timur, to rule. The khanate was officially established in 1441.

Around 1500, the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray built the capital of Salachik. In 1532, Sahib I Giray, the son of Mengli I Giray, established a new capital called Bakhchisarai in a valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, generations of Crimean Khans built palaces and various mosque buildings here.

In 1550, the Khan ruling the Crimean Khanate was Sahib I Giray. He ascended the throne with the help of the Ottoman Empire. Later, he joined forces with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to attack the Moldavians, and in 1541, he raided Moscow and brought back spoils of war.

The location of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate.



The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.











The Iron Gate (Demir Qapı) is the oldest structure in the Khan's Palace. It was built between 1503 and 1504 for the Crimean Khan by the architect Aleviz Novy, who had been invited by Ivan the Great to build churches in Moscow. The Iron Gate was likely first built at the Crimean Khan's previous residence, Devlet-Saray, and moved to the main palace building after the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was completed in 1532. "Demir Qapı" means "iron gate" in Crimean Tatar. The doorway is made of limestone and features Lombard-Venetian Renaissance decorative styles.











The Great Khan Mosque (Büyük Han Cami) in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was built in 1532 and is one of the earliest structures in the palace. The original mosque had multiple domes, similar to the Seljuk-style mosques popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1736. It was later restored by Khan Selamet II Giray (who reigned from 1740 to 1743) and converted to a tiled roof.

During the Soviet era, the mosque was closed and turned into an exhibition hall for the archaeological museum. After Russia occupied Crimea in 2014, the mosque underwent repairs, some of which caused damage to the building.



















The SaryGuzel Bathhouse was built in 1532 by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray. Like the Great Khan Mosque, it is one of the earliest buildings in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace. In Crimean Tatar, "Sarı" means "yellow or fair-skinned," and "Güzel" means "beautiful." The SaryGuzel Bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath. A furnace in the basement heated the floor with rising hot air, and cold and hot water were supplied through lead pipes. The bathhouse is divided into men's and women's sections, each with its own dome. The domes have star-shaped cutouts for ventilation and light, and there is an indoor courtyard with a fountain at the exit.

The SaryGuzel Bathhouse operated until 1924, when it was closed because it was considered unsafe. It has since been repaired and is now open for exhibitions.















The Khan's cemetery holds the grave of the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray (reigned 1551–1577). He was appointed Kalga (the second-in-command after the Khan) in 1530. Later, due to court struggles, he went to Istanbul and gradually gained the trust of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1551, with the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, he became the Crimean Khan.



Block 1 of 3 for Part 1A view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Mongol Empire Legacy and Muslim History (Part 1A) is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Mongol Empire, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. This time, we will visit 12 countries ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North Asia and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the early 13th century, as the Mongol Empire expanded, Genghis Khan began dividing his lands among his sons. Orda and Batu, the sons of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, received lands in southern Russia and Kazakhstan, which gradually formed the Golden Horde. Hulagu Khan, the son of Genghis Khan's fourth son Tolui, received lands in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and parts of West Asia, which gradually formed the Ilkhanate. After the Yuan Dynasty was established in 1271, the original families of Ogedei and Chagatai, led by Kaidu, opposed Kublai Khan. This led to the formation of the Ogedei Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate, completing the four great Mongol khanates.

After the 14th century, the territory of the Ogedei Khanate was first divided between the Chagatai Khanate and the Yuan Dynasty, and later the Ilkhanate and the Chagatai Khanate also began to split apart. The Golden Horde was the last to decline, splitting into several khanates in the early 15th century.

In 1550, there were 12 countries and regimes established by descendants of Genghis Khan, ruling a vast area from Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and China's Xinjiang to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. They were:

1. The Crimean Khanate ruled the Crimean Peninsula.

2. The Astrakhan Khanate ruled the Volga Delta.

3. The Nogai Horde ruled the region between the Volga and Ural rivers.

4. The Qasim Khanate ruled Kasimov in the modern-day Ryazan Oblast of Russia.

5. The Kazan Khanate ruled the middle Volga region.

6. The Siberian Khanate ruled the area around the Irtysh River.

7. The Kazakh Khanate ruled the Kazakh Steppe.

8. The Khanate of Khiva ruled the Khwarezm region.

9. The Khanate of Bukhara ruled the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

10. The Yarkent Khanate ruled the southern Xinjiang region.

11. Haidar ruled the Kashmir region.

12. The Arghun dynasty ruled southern Afghanistan and the Sindh region of Pakistan.

Additionally, the Mughal Empire was briefly overthrown at this time, and its second emperor, Humayun, was in exile in Persia.

1. The Crimean Khanate in Ukraine (1441–1783).

We start this journey on the Crimean Peninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea.

The Khan of the Crimean Khanate was a descendant of Tuka-Timur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was Genghis Khan's eldest son. In the 1260s, the Golden Horde gave the Crimean Peninsula to the ancestor of the Crimean Khans, Uran Timur, to rule. The khanate was officially established in 1441.

Around 1500, the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray built the capital of Salachik. In 1532, Sahib I Giray, the son of Mengli I Giray, established a new capital called Bakhchisarai in a valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, generations of Crimean Khans built palaces and various mosque buildings here.

In 1550, the Khan ruling the Crimean Khanate was Sahib I Giray. He ascended the throne with the help of the Ottoman Empire. Later, he joined forces with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to attack the Moldavians, and in 1541, he raided Moscow and brought back spoils of war.

The location of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate.



The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.











The Iron Gate (Demir Qapı) is the oldest structure in the Khan's Palace. It was built between 1503 and 1504 for the Crimean Khan by the architect Aleviz Novy, who had been invited by Ivan the Great to build churches in Moscow. The Iron Gate was likely first built at the Crimean Khan's previous residence, Devlet-Saray, and moved to the main palace building after the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was completed in 1532. "Demir Qapı" means "iron gate" in Crimean Tatar. The doorway is made of limestone and features Lombard-Venetian Renaissance decorative styles.











The Great Khan Mosque (Büyük Han Cami) in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was built in 1532 and is one of the earliest structures in the palace. The original mosque had multiple domes, similar to the Seljuk-style mosques popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1736. It was later restored by Khan Selamet II Giray (who reigned from 1740 to 1743) and converted to a tiled roof.

During the Soviet era, the mosque was closed and turned into an exhibition hall for the archaeological museum. After Russia occupied Crimea in 2014, the mosque underwent repairs, some of which caused damage to the building.



















The SaryGuzel Bathhouse was built in 1532 by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray. Like the Great Khan Mosque, it is one of the earliest buildings in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace. In Crimean Tatar, "Sarı" means "yellow or fair-skinned," and "Güzel" means "beautiful." The SaryGuzel Bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath. A furnace in the basement heated the floor with rising hot air, and cold and hot water were supplied through lead pipes. The bathhouse is divided into men's and women's sections, each with its own dome. The domes have star-shaped cutouts for ventilation and light, and there is an indoor courtyard with a fountain at the exit.

The SaryGuzel Bathhouse operated until 1924, when it was closed because it was considered unsafe. It has since been repaired and is now open for exhibitions.















The Khan's cemetery holds the grave of the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray (reigned 1551–1577). He was appointed Kalga (the second-in-command after the Khan) in 1530. Later, due to court struggles, he went to Istanbul and gradually gained the trust of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1551, with the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, he became the Crimean Khan.



2. The Astrakhan Khanate of Russia (1466–1556)

We continue east to the mouth of the Volga River.

The Astrakhan Khanate was located in the Volga Delta. Its founder, Mahmud bin Küchük, was a prince of the Golden Horde. The Astrakhan Khanate was mainly inhabited by Astrakhan Tatars and Nogais. The Khanate's caravans traveled between Moscow, Kazan, Crimea, Central Asia, and the Transcaucasus region. In 1532, the Astrakhan Khanate began to have contact with Russia. After Russia conquered Kazan in 1552, the Astrakhan Khanate could not escape the same fate.

In 1550, the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate was Hajji Tarkhan, located on the right bank of the Volga River, 12 kilometers north of the modern city of Astrakhan. The city of Hajji Tarkhan was built by the Golden Horde in the late 13th century, appeared in the Travels of Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, was destroyed by Timur's army in 1395, and was rebuilt by the Astrakhan Khanate in the 15th century. The city was occupied by the Crimean Khanate in 1547 and was finally burned down by Ivan the Terrible in 1556.

There are currently about 60,000 Astrakhan Tatars in Russia. Most live in the Astrakhan Oblast, with half living in the city of Astrakhan, where they have their own community and several mosques.

The location of the city of Hajji Tarkhan.



The White Mosque in Astrakhan, photographed by Polinadelia in 2014.



3. The Nogai Horde in Russia and Kazakhstan (1440–1634)

Continuing east from the Volga River, you reach the grasslands of the Nogai tribes.

Nogai was the great-grandson of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, and an important leader of the Golden Horde who ruled many Turkic-speaking tribes in the 13th century. A century later, the Golden Horde general Edigu ruled a large area from the Volga to the Ural River, and the tribes under his rule were also called the Nogai Horde.

We can find history about the Nogai Horde in the early 16th century in Russian records. In 1521, the Nogai were driven west by the Kazakhs and crossed the Volga River to attack Astrakhan. In 1522, the Kazakhs captured the capital of the Nogai Horde. In 1523, the Nogai Horde defeated the army that had briefly occupied Astrakhan.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was Yosuf Khan (1549–1555), who had helped Moscow against the Kazan Khanate in 1549.

Saray-Jük was the capital of the Nogai Horde, located on the border of Europe and Asia in western Kazakhstan. This city sat on a trade route between Europe and China and was an important commercial hub during the Golden Horde period. After being destroyed by Timur in 1395, it was rebuilt in the 1430s and 1440s.

The location of Saray-Jük.



The ruins of Saray-Jük, photographed by Yakov Fedorov in 2020.



4. The Qasim Khanate in Russia (1452–1681)

We head north to the modern-day Ryazan Oblast in Russia.

The Qasim Khanate was located in Russia's Ryazan Oblast. Its founder, Qasim Khan, was the son of Ulugh Muhammad, the founder of the Kazan Khanate. The Qasim Khanate served as a buffer state between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kazan Khanate and was under heavy Russian control.

In 1550, the Khan of the Qasim Khanate was Shahghali, who was installed as the Khan of the Kazan Khanate three times as a Russian vassal. In 1546, Shahghali was overthrown by the people of Kazan and fled back to the Qasim Khanate. Between 1547 and 1551, he participated in several Russian attacks on the Kazan Khanate and took part in the final Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552.

The capital of the Qasim Khanate, Qasimov, is located on the left bank of the Oka River in Russia's Ryazan Oblast, where one thousand Tatar-speaking Qasim Tatars still live today. The Khan Mosque in Qasimov was built by Shahghali in the mid-16th century. It was ordered to be demolished by Peter the Great in 1702, but the minaret (bangke ta) was preserved. This minaret is very similar to the Light Tower (Guangta) of the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou.

The Khan Mosque in Qasimov, photographed by Alexander Novikov in 2014.



The location of Qasimov.



5. The Kazan Khanate in Russia (1438–1552)

We headed east to the city of Kazan on the banks of the Volga River.

The Kazan Khanate was founded by Ulugh Muhammad, a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, who had ruled the Golden Horde twice. He lost control of the Golden Horde in 1436, then led his army to the Volga River and officially established the Kazan Khanate after capturing Kazan in 1438.

In 1521, the Kazan Khanate formed an alliance with the Astrakhan, Crimean, and Nogai Khanates to resist Moscow together. This caused dissatisfaction among pro-Russian factions within the Kazan Khanate, leading the state into internal conflict.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was the four-year-old Ötemish Giray, though the actual rulers were his mother, Söyembikä, and the prime minister (uğlan) Qoşçaq. Seeing the instability in the Kazan Khanate, Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent a large army to besiege Kazan in February 1550, but the thawing of the Volga River forced the Russians to retreat and only attack the outskirts of the city. Throughout that year, Söyembikä and Qoşçaq fought against the pro-Russian faction, and relations with Russia continued to worsen.

The Kazan Khanate built many homes and public buildings in Kazan, including the Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs, with tall minarets defining the city's skyline. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible invaded Kazan, destroyed the Kazan Khanate, and drove all Tatars out of the city, allowing only Russians to settle there. Between 1556 and 1562, Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Kazan Kremlin on the site of the old Kazan Khanate fortress. The mosques, the Kazan Khan's palace, and the tombs were initially used as armories and ammunition depots, but were eventually completely demolished in the 18th century.

In 1977, hydraulic engineers accidentally dug up a grave while laying rainwater pipes at the Kazan Kremlin and immediately contacted the archaeology department. Archaeological excavations lasted for 10 years, eventually uncovering five graves, two of which were confirmed to be those of the actual founders of the Kazan Khanate: Mäxmüd Khan (died 1463 or 1466) and his grandson, Möxämmät Ämin (died 1518). The tomb was originally made of white stone and finally collapsed in the 17th century.

For further research, the remains of the two Kazan Khans, Mäxmüd and Möxämmät Ämin, were kept at the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences for 40 years. In May 2017, after continuous efforts by the Tatar Muslims of Kazan, the two Kazan Khans were finally reburied not far from their original graves.







Between 2004 and 2005, the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences re-excavated the Kazan Khan tombs and discovered the graves of four more Khans: Xalil (died 1467), İbrahim (died 1478), Safa Giray (died 1549), and Canghali (died 1535). Today, these four Kazan Khan graves are protected under a glass roof. Safa Giray Khan came from the Giray family of the Crimean Khanate and served as the Khan of Kazan three times: from 1524–1531, 1535–1546, and 1546–1549. Safa Giray was an anti-Russian Khan. His first reign ended due to Moscow's attack on Kazan, and he regained the throne four years later after Kazan nobles overthrew the pro-Russian Khan. Eleven years later, due to internal unrest in Kazan, he was overthrown again by a pro-Russian Khan. Safa Giray fled to his father-in-law's Nogai tribe, and a few months later, he returned to Kazan with a Nogai army to become the Khan for the third time. Canghali Khan was originally the Khan of the Qasim Khanate, a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1532, Grand Prince Vasily III of Moscow defeated the Kazan Khan Safa Giray and installed the 16-year-old Canghali as the pro-Russian Khan of Kazan. He died in 1535 during a coup by Kazan nobles.









There is a performance about the Siege of Kazan at the entrance of the Kul Sharif Mosque inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1552, when Ivan the Terrible besieged Kazan, the last imam of the Kazan Khanate, Seid Kul Sharif, led the people in a final resistance and died in the city. Today, Seid Kul Sharif is a national hero for the Kazan Tatars, and the new Kul Sharif Mosque built in 2005 is named after him.





The National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan houses a letter written in 1523 by the Kazan Khan Sahib I Giray (reigned 1521–1524). A replica of this letter is also inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1521, to resist the control of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Kazan Khanate overthrew the pro-Moscow Khan Shahghali and welcomed Sahib I Giray from Crimea to Kazan to become the new Khan.



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Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Mongol Empire Legacy and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Mongol Empire, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. This time, we will visit 12 countries ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North Asia and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the early 13th century, as the Mongol Empire expanded, Genghis Khan began dividing his lands among his sons. Orda and Batu, the sons of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, received lands in southern Russia and Kazakhstan, which gradually formed the Golden Horde. Hulagu Khan, the son of Genghis Khan's fourth son Tolui, received lands in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and parts of West Asia, which gradually formed the Ilkhanate. After the Yuan Dynasty was established in 1271, the original families of Ogedei and Chagatai, led by Kaidu, opposed Kublai Khan. This led to the formation of the Ogedei Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate, completing the four great Mongol khanates.

After the 14th century, the territory of the Ogedei Khanate was first divided between the Chagatai Khanate and the Yuan Dynasty, and later the Ilkhanate and the Chagatai Khanate also began to split apart. The Golden Horde was the last to decline, splitting into several khanates in the early 15th century.

In 1550, there were 12 countries and regimes established by descendants of Genghis Khan, ruling a vast area from Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and China's Xinjiang to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. They were:

1. The Crimean Khanate ruled the Crimean Peninsula.

2. The Astrakhan Khanate ruled the Volga Delta.

3. The Nogai Horde ruled the region between the Volga and Ural rivers.

4. The Qasim Khanate ruled Kasimov in the modern-day Ryazan Oblast of Russia.

5. The Kazan Khanate ruled the middle Volga region.

6. The Siberian Khanate ruled the area around the Irtysh River.

7. The Kazakh Khanate ruled the Kazakh Steppe.

8. The Khanate of Khiva ruled the Khwarezm region.

9. The Khanate of Bukhara ruled the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

10. The Yarkent Khanate ruled the southern Xinjiang region.

11. Haidar ruled the Kashmir region.

12. The Arghun dynasty ruled southern Afghanistan and the Sindh region of Pakistan.

Additionally, the Mughal Empire was briefly overthrown at this time, and its second emperor, Humayun, was in exile in Persia.

1. The Crimean Khanate in Ukraine (1441–1783).

We start this journey on the Crimean Peninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea.

The Khan of the Crimean Khanate was a descendant of Tuka-Timur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was Genghis Khan's eldest son. In the 1260s, the Golden Horde gave the Crimean Peninsula to the ancestor of the Crimean Khans, Uran Timur, to rule. The khanate was officially established in 1441.

Around 1500, the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray built the capital of Salachik. In 1532, Sahib I Giray, the son of Mengli I Giray, established a new capital called Bakhchisarai in a valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, generations of Crimean Khans built palaces and various mosque buildings here.

In 1550, the Khan ruling the Crimean Khanate was Sahib I Giray. He ascended the throne with the help of the Ottoman Empire. Later, he joined forces with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to attack the Moldavians, and in 1541, he raided Moscow and brought back spoils of war.

The location of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate.



The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.











The Iron Gate (Demir Qapı) is the oldest structure in the Khan's Palace. It was built between 1503 and 1504 for the Crimean Khan by the architect Aleviz Novy, who had been invited by Ivan the Great to build churches in Moscow. The Iron Gate was likely first built at the Crimean Khan's previous residence, Devlet-Saray, and moved to the main palace building after the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was completed in 1532. "Demir Qapı" means "iron gate" in Crimean Tatar. The doorway is made of limestone and features Lombard-Venetian Renaissance decorative styles.











The Great Khan Mosque (Büyük Han Cami) in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was built in 1532 and is one of the earliest structures in the palace. The original mosque had multiple domes, similar to the Seljuk-style mosques popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1736. It was later restored by Khan Selamet II Giray (who reigned from 1740 to 1743) and converted to a tiled roof.

During the Soviet era, the mosque was closed and turned into an exhibition hall for the archaeological museum. After Russia occupied Crimea in 2014, the mosque underwent repairs, some of which caused damage to the building.



















The SaryGuzel Bathhouse was built in 1532 by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray. Like the Great Khan Mosque, it is one of the earliest buildings in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace. In Crimean Tatar, "Sarı" means "yellow or fair-skinned," and "Güzel" means "beautiful." The SaryGuzel Bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath. A furnace in the basement heated the floor with rising hot air, and cold and hot water were supplied through lead pipes. The bathhouse is divided into men's and women's sections, each with its own dome. The domes have star-shaped cutouts for ventilation and light, and there is an indoor courtyard with a fountain at the exit.

The SaryGuzel Bathhouse operated until 1924, when it was closed because it was considered unsafe. It has since been repaired and is now open for exhibitions.















The Khan's cemetery holds the grave of the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray (reigned 1551–1577). He was appointed Kalga (the second-in-command after the Khan) in 1530. Later, due to court struggles, he went to Istanbul and gradually gained the trust of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1551, with the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, he became the Crimean Khan.



2. The Astrakhan Khanate of Russia (1466–1556)

We continue east to the mouth of the Volga River.

The Astrakhan Khanate was located in the Volga Delta. Its founder, Mahmud bin Küchük, was a prince of the Golden Horde. The Astrakhan Khanate was mainly inhabited by Astrakhan Tatars and Nogais. The Khanate's caravans traveled between Moscow, Kazan, Crimea, Central Asia, and the Transcaucasus region. In 1532, the Astrakhan Khanate began to have contact with Russia. After Russia conquered Kazan in 1552, the Astrakhan Khanate could not escape the same fate.

In 1550, the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate was Hajji Tarkhan, located on the right bank of the Volga River, 12 kilometers north of the modern city of Astrakhan. The city of Hajji Tarkhan was built by the Golden Horde in the late 13th century, appeared in the Travels of Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, was destroyed by Timur's army in 1395, and was rebuilt by the Astrakhan Khanate in the 15th century. The city was occupied by the Crimean Khanate in 1547 and was finally burned down by Ivan the Terrible in 1556.

There are currently about 60,000 Astrakhan Tatars in Russia. Most live in the Astrakhan Oblast, with half living in the city of Astrakhan, where they have their own community and several mosques.

The location of the city of Hajji Tarkhan.



The White Mosque in Astrakhan, photographed by Polinadelia in 2014.



3. The Nogai Horde in Russia and Kazakhstan (1440–1634)

Continuing east from the Volga River, you reach the grasslands of the Nogai tribes.

Nogai was the great-grandson of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, and an important leader of the Golden Horde who ruled many Turkic-speaking tribes in the 13th century. A century later, the Golden Horde general Edigu ruled a large area from the Volga to the Ural River, and the tribes under his rule were also called the Nogai Horde.

We can find history about the Nogai Horde in the early 16th century in Russian records. In 1521, the Nogai were driven west by the Kazakhs and crossed the Volga River to attack Astrakhan. In 1522, the Kazakhs captured the capital of the Nogai Horde. In 1523, the Nogai Horde defeated the army that had briefly occupied Astrakhan.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was Yosuf Khan (1549–1555), who had helped Moscow against the Kazan Khanate in 1549.

Saray-Jük was the capital of the Nogai Horde, located on the border of Europe and Asia in western Kazakhstan. This city sat on a trade route between Europe and China and was an important commercial hub during the Golden Horde period. After being destroyed by Timur in 1395, it was rebuilt in the 1430s and 1440s.

The location of Saray-Jük.



The ruins of Saray-Jük, photographed by Yakov Fedorov in 2020.



4. The Qasim Khanate in Russia (1452–1681)

We head north to the modern-day Ryazan Oblast in Russia.

The Qasim Khanate was located in Russia's Ryazan Oblast. Its founder, Qasim Khan, was the son of Ulugh Muhammad, the founder of the Kazan Khanate. The Qasim Khanate served as a buffer state between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kazan Khanate and was under heavy Russian control.

In 1550, the Khan of the Qasim Khanate was Shahghali, who was installed as the Khan of the Kazan Khanate three times as a Russian vassal. In 1546, Shahghali was overthrown by the people of Kazan and fled back to the Qasim Khanate. Between 1547 and 1551, he participated in several Russian attacks on the Kazan Khanate and took part in the final Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552.

The capital of the Qasim Khanate, Qasimov, is located on the left bank of the Oka River in Russia's Ryazan Oblast, where one thousand Tatar-speaking Qasim Tatars still live today. The Khan Mosque in Qasimov was built by Shahghali in the mid-16th century. It was ordered to be demolished by Peter the Great in 1702, but the minaret (bangke ta) was preserved. This minaret is very similar to the Light Tower (Guangta) of the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou.

The Khan Mosque in Qasimov, photographed by Alexander Novikov in 2014.



The location of Qasimov.



5. The Kazan Khanate in Russia (1438–1552)

We headed east to the city of Kazan on the banks of the Volga River.

The Kazan Khanate was founded by Ulugh Muhammad, a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, who had ruled the Golden Horde twice. He lost control of the Golden Horde in 1436, then led his army to the Volga River and officially established the Kazan Khanate after capturing Kazan in 1438.

In 1521, the Kazan Khanate formed an alliance with the Astrakhan, Crimean, and Nogai Khanates to resist Moscow together. This caused dissatisfaction among pro-Russian factions within the Kazan Khanate, leading the state into internal conflict.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was the four-year-old Ötemish Giray, though the actual rulers were his mother, Söyembikä, and the prime minister (uğlan) Qoşçaq. Seeing the instability in the Kazan Khanate, Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent a large army to besiege Kazan in February 1550, but the thawing of the Volga River forced the Russians to retreat and only attack the outskirts of the city. Throughout that year, Söyembikä and Qoşçaq fought against the pro-Russian faction, and relations with Russia continued to worsen.

The Kazan Khanate built many homes and public buildings in Kazan, including the Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs, with tall minarets defining the city's skyline. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible invaded Kazan, destroyed the Kazan Khanate, and drove all Tatars out of the city, allowing only Russians to settle there. Between 1556 and 1562, Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Kazan Kremlin on the site of the old Kazan Khanate fortress. The mosques, the Kazan Khan's palace, and the tombs were initially used as armories and ammunition depots, but were eventually completely demolished in the 18th century.

In 1977, hydraulic engineers accidentally dug up a grave while laying rainwater pipes at the Kazan Kremlin and immediately contacted the archaeology department. Archaeological excavations lasted for 10 years, eventually uncovering five graves, two of which were confirmed to be those of the actual founders of the Kazan Khanate: Mäxmüd Khan (died 1463 or 1466) and his grandson, Möxämmät Ämin (died 1518). The tomb was originally made of white stone and finally collapsed in the 17th century.

For further research, the remains of the two Kazan Khans, Mäxmüd and Möxämmät Ämin, were kept at the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences for 40 years. In May 2017, after continuous efforts by the Tatar Muslims of Kazan, the two Kazan Khans were finally reburied not far from their original graves.







Between 2004 and 2005, the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences re-excavated the Kazan Khan tombs and discovered the graves of four more Khans: Xalil (died 1467), İbrahim (died 1478), Safa Giray (died 1549), and Canghali (died 1535). Today, these four Kazan Khan graves are protected under a glass roof. Safa Giray Khan came from the Giray family of the Crimean Khanate and served as the Khan of Kazan three times: from 1524–1531, 1535–1546, and 1546–1549. Safa Giray was an anti-Russian Khan. His first reign ended due to Moscow's attack on Kazan, and he regained the throne four years later after Kazan nobles overthrew the pro-Russian Khan. Eleven years later, due to internal unrest in Kazan, he was overthrown again by a pro-Russian Khan. Safa Giray fled to his father-in-law's Nogai tribe, and a few months later, he returned to Kazan with a Nogai army to become the Khan for the third time. Canghali Khan was originally the Khan of the Qasim Khanate, a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1532, Grand Prince Vasily III of Moscow defeated the Kazan Khan Safa Giray and installed the 16-year-old Canghali as the pro-Russian Khan of Kazan. He died in 1535 during a coup by Kazan nobles.









There is a performance about the Siege of Kazan at the entrance of the Kul Sharif Mosque inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1552, when Ivan the Terrible besieged Kazan, the last imam of the Kazan Khanate, Seid Kul Sharif, led the people in a final resistance and died in the city. Today, Seid Kul Sharif is a national hero for the Kazan Tatars, and the new Kul Sharif Mosque built in 2005 is named after him.





The National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan houses a letter written in 1523 by the Kazan Khan Sahib I Giray (reigned 1521–1524). A replica of this letter is also inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1521, to resist the control of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Kazan Khanate overthrew the pro-Moscow Khan Shahghali and welcomed Sahib I Giray from Crimea to Kazan to become the new Khan.



6. The Siberian Khanate of Russia (1468-1598)

We continue heading east to the meeting point of the Irtysh River and the Siberian River.

The Siberian (Sibir) Khanate was north of the Kazakh Khanate. It was the northernmost Muslim state in history, reaching all the way to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. In the 16th century, the capital of the Siberian Khanate was Qashliq, located on the right bank of the Irtysh River. Qashliq, also called the City of Siberia, was very prosperous in the early 16th century and had close trade ties with the Kazan Khanate. Later, it was permanently destroyed by the Cossacks, and it is hard to find any traces of it now.

The location of Qashliq city



7. The Kazakh Khanate of Kazakhstan (1465-1847)

Moving south from Siberia, we enter the vast Kazakh steppe.

The founders of the Kazakh Khanate, Janybek Khan and Kerey Khan, were both descendants of Tuqa Temur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was the eldest son of Genghis Khan.

In 1550, the Khanate was ruled by Haqnazar Khan (1537-1580). At that time, the Kazakh Khanate had rivals on all sides. He first defeated the Nogai Khanate, then the Khanate of Khiva and the Oirats, and then the Siberian Khanate and the Yarkent Khanate. This made the Kazakh Khanate stronger than ever, earning him the title of King of Turan (Shah-i-Turan).

The capital of the Kazakh Khanate at that time was Sighnaq, located in what is now the Kyzylorda Region of Kazakhstan. This was originally the capital of the Blue Horde and served as an important trade point for steppe tribes to exchange goods with the southern farming regions.

Sighnaq photographed by Azamat Nurlybekov in 2022



The location of Sighnaq





8. The Khanate of Khiva in Turkmenistan (1511–1920)

Continuing southwest, we go deep into the heart of Central Asia.

The Khanate of Khiva was located in the Khwarezm region south of the Aral Sea. It called itself Khwarezm, and its rulers were descendants of Shiban, the fifth son of Jochi, who was the eldest son of Genghis Khan. In the 16th century, the capital of the Khanate of Khiva was Konye-Urgench, located on the border of northern Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. After the Khanate moved its capital to Khiva in the 17th century, this place was gradually abandoned. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2005.

Before the Mongol conquest of Khwarezm, Konye-Urgench was one of the wealthiest cities in Central Asia. Most of the current ruins belong to that period, and very few remains from the Khanate of Khiva period have been preserved.

The location of Konye-Urgench





9. The Khanate of Bukhara in Uzbekistan (1500–1785)

Let us continue east into the ancient city of Bukhara.

In the early 16th century, Muhammad Shaybani, a descendant of Shiban (the fifth son of Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son), led Uzbek tribes living in the northern Central Asian steppes to overthrow the Timurid dynasty's rule in Transoxiana. He established the Shaybanid Dynasty (1506-1598), opening a new chapter in the history of the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

The capital of the Shaybanid Dynasty was initially in Samarkand, but it moved to Bukhara after 1533, which is why later generations called it the Khanate of Bukhara. Bukhara served as the capital of the Khanate of Bukhara for 252 years, from 1533 to 1785, and many buildings constructed during that time remain today.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built in 1535 by order of Ubaidullah, the Khan of the Shaybanid Dynasty (reigned 1533-1539). It was named after the Khan's Sufi mentor, Mir-i-Arab (also known as Sheikh Abdullah Yamani).

To compete for territory, Khan Ubaidullah fought many wars against the Persian Safavid dynasty, the most famous being the siege of the ancient Afghan city of Herat. During many raids on Persia, the Shaybanid Dynasty captured many prisoners. People say the Khan used the money from selling three thousand Persian captives to build the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built opposite the famous Kalyan mosque in Bukhara, forming a facing structure known as a "kosh."

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa closed in the 1920s but reopened in 1947. It became the only open madrasa in Bukhara at the time, and almost all the imams of that era were trained at this school.









The Khoja Zaynuddin mosque was built in the first half of the 16th century, located next to an ancient pond (Hauz) in Bukhara. This architectural style is known as a mosque-khanaka (Mosque-Khanaka). It serves as both a mosque and a Sufi center, where people can perform namaz and hold religious gatherings (ermeli).























The Bahouddin Naqshbandi Complex is an important Sufi holy site in Central Asia, often called the 'Little Mecca' of the region. It holds the tomb of Hazrat Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband, the founder of the famous Naqshbandia Sufi order.

During the Shaybanid dynasty, the Naqshbandia order eventually outperformed other Sufi groups to become the dominant order in the khanate. Unlike other Sufi orders that favored seclusion and leaving the world behind, the Naqshbandia order followed the principles set by its founder: 'solitude in the crowd, travel in the world, caution in action, and enjoyment of the moment.'

In 1544, the Shaybanid Khan Abdulaziz (who reigned from 1539 to 1550) built a Dakhma platform with marble railings at the shrine, along with a Sufi lodge (Khanaqa) nearby. Later, a large cemetery for Bukhara's rulers appeared near the shrine, as every ruler felt honored to be buried close to it.





During the Shaybanid period of the Bukhara Khanate, Tashkent's population and size gradually recovered, making it a commercial and cultural hub along the Silk Road. Most of the historical buildings still standing in Tashkent today were built during this time. Abu Bakr Mohammed Kaffal Shashi was a famous imam and scholar in Tashkent during the Samanid dynasty. After he passed away in 976, he was buried in a garden on the outskirts of Tashkent. The current Kaffal Shashi mausoleum was rebuilt in 1541 during the Shaybanid dynasty. It features the design of a Sufi lodge (Khanaqah), including a tall archway (Iwan) and a dome. Inside, besides Kaffal Shashi, his students are also buried there, including his three main disciples. The mausoleum was once covered in beautiful tiles, but only parts remain today, and they have been restored. Additionally, the window lattices on the mausoleum gate are already 500 years old. According to Tashkent legends, applying dust from this mausoleum to one's face can help a woman become pregnant, which attracts many women who are struggling to conceive.



















10. The Yarkent Khanate in China (1514-1680)

We crossed the Tianshan Mountains and arrived at the city of Shache in southern Xinjiang.

The Yarkent (Yarkent) Khanate was a state established in 1514 by Sultan Said Khan, a descendant of the Eastern Chagatai royal family. With Yarkent city (Shache) as its capital, it ruled southern Xinjiang and surrounding areas for over a hundred years until it was annexed by the Dzungar Khanate in 1680.

During the Yarkent Khanate's rule over southern Xinjiang, the Chagatai Mongols eventually shifted from nomadic life to settled living and merged into the Uyghur people. The Uyghurs also gradually developed into a modern ethnic group during this period, and the Twelve Muqam was finalized at this time as well.

'Yarkent Khanate' is actually a name used by modern scholars. In earlier local documents, the Persian word 'Moghuliye' was used, which means 'Mongol State'. Around the same time, Sultan Said Khan's cousin Babur established a state in northern India and also called it 'Moghul'. To distinguish them, Chinese usually translates them as 'Mengwu'er' and 'Mowo'er' respectively.

The founder of the Yarkent Khanate, Said Khan, was the third son of Ahmad Alaq, the ruler of Uyghurstan (modern-day Turpan area) in the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. In 1514, after stabilizing the Transoxiana region, the Uzbek army prepared to wipe out the Chagatai Mongols. After careful thought and discussion, Said Khan decided he could not withstand the Uzbek army's attack, so he left the Fergana Valley, crossed the Tianshan Mountains, and headed toward Yarkent.

In the spring of 1514, Said Khan led his army across the Tianshan Mountains and reached Kashgar via the Torugart Pass. At that time, southern Xinjiang was ruled by Abu Bakr, the leader of the Mongol Dughlat tribe. He was recruiting soldiers in Yarkent city. Said Khan fought a fierce battle outside the city against the Kashgar garrison and defeated the enemy. The enemy closed the gates and refused to come out, so Said Khan could not take the city and turned to attack the city of Yengisar. Said Khan besieged Yengisar for two months and finally captured it after six days of intense fighting.

Hearing that Yengisar had fallen, the Kashgar garrison abandoned the city and fled, so Said Khan marched directly toward Yarkent. When Abu Bakr heard this, he abandoned the city and fled to Hotan, and soon after, Said Khan entered Yarkent city. On September 3, 1514, Said Khan officially ascended the throne and established the Yarkent Khanate.

In 1516, Sultan Said reconciled with his older brother, Mansur Khan, who ruled the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. He agreed to mention Mansur's name during the khutbah (sermon) and to mint coins bearing Mansur's name. Southern Xinjiang welcomed long-awaited peace and order that year. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes it this way:

The reconciliation between these two brothers brought safety and prosperity to the residents. Anyone could travel alone between Hami in China and the Fergana region without needing food supplies or fearing robbery.

The location of Yarkand city.



Today, there is a site in the old city of Yarkand called Ordakul, which means royal palace pond. This was likely the location of the Yarkand Khanate's royal palace. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes Yarkand city during the early Yarkand Khanate period like this:

They diverted rivers into the city and built gardens. The main roads were lined with poplar trees. People walking around the city could spend half their journey in the shade of these trees, and most of the tree-lined paths had water channels on both sides.





Ordakul Mosque





To the west of Ordakul is the Jami Mosque. Jami is also translated as Jumu'ah, which refers to the weekly Friday congregational prayer. The Jami Mosque was reportedly founded by Sultan Said and later expanded during the reign of Abdullah Khan (reigned 1638–1669).

























After settling down in the oases of southern Xinjiang, many Chagatai Mongols began to complain about city life and missed the nomadic life on the steppes of their homeland, Moghulistan. the small pastures in the southern Xinjiang oases could not support the needs of the Mongol army. In 1522, Sultan Said sent his son, Abdurashid Khan, to lead troops into Moghulistan and conquer the Kyrgyz people living there.

In 1526, the Kazakhs entered Moghulistan and joined forces with the Kyrgyz, reaching a total of over 200,000 people. Sultan Said realized his strength was not enough to fight them, so he ordered all the Chagatai Mongols to return to southern Xinjiang. The Chagatai Mongols' five-year attempt to return to their nomadic homeland ultimately ended in failure.

After the failure in the north, Sultan Said turned his attention to attacking the south. In 1529, Sultan Said raided the Badakhshan region, which lay between the Yarkand Khanate and the Mughal Empire. This raid caused conflict between Sultan Said and his cousin, Emperor Babur. Emperor Babur wrote a letter to Sultan Said warning him that if he continued, you will know the rest yourself.

In 1532, Sultan Said personally led an army south to prepare for an expedition to Lhasa. While crossing the Karakoram Mountains, Sultan Said suffered from severe altitude sickness and lost his strength. In 1533, he decided to return to Yarkand to recover, but he died from altitude sickness while crossing the Karakoram Mountains again.

After Sultan Said died in 1533, his son, Abdurashid Khan (reigned 1533–1560), succeeded him. Abdurashid Khan built a mausoleum for his father at the west gate of Yarkand city. Later, this also became the royal mausoleum of the Yarkand Khanate.

The current mausoleum of Sultan Said was rebuilt in 1997. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Mongol Empire Legacy and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Mongol Empire, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. This time, we will visit 12 countries ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North Asia and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the early 13th century, as the Mongol Empire expanded, Genghis Khan began dividing his lands among his sons. Orda and Batu, the sons of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, received lands in southern Russia and Kazakhstan, which gradually formed the Golden Horde. Hulagu Khan, the son of Genghis Khan's fourth son Tolui, received lands in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and parts of West Asia, which gradually formed the Ilkhanate. After the Yuan Dynasty was established in 1271, the original families of Ogedei and Chagatai, led by Kaidu, opposed Kublai Khan. This led to the formation of the Ogedei Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate, completing the four great Mongol khanates.

After the 14th century, the territory of the Ogedei Khanate was first divided between the Chagatai Khanate and the Yuan Dynasty, and later the Ilkhanate and the Chagatai Khanate also began to split apart. The Golden Horde was the last to decline, splitting into several khanates in the early 15th century.

In 1550, there were 12 countries and regimes established by descendants of Genghis Khan, ruling a vast area from Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and China's Xinjiang to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. They were:

1. The Crimean Khanate ruled the Crimean Peninsula.

2. The Astrakhan Khanate ruled the Volga Delta.

3. The Nogai Horde ruled the region between the Volga and Ural rivers.

4. The Qasim Khanate ruled Kasimov in the modern-day Ryazan Oblast of Russia.

5. The Kazan Khanate ruled the middle Volga region.

6. The Siberian Khanate ruled the area around the Irtysh River.

7. The Kazakh Khanate ruled the Kazakh Steppe.

8. The Khanate of Khiva ruled the Khwarezm region.

9. The Khanate of Bukhara ruled the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

10. The Yarkent Khanate ruled the southern Xinjiang region.

11. Haidar ruled the Kashmir region.

12. The Arghun dynasty ruled southern Afghanistan and the Sindh region of Pakistan.

Additionally, the Mughal Empire was briefly overthrown at this time, and its second emperor, Humayun, was in exile in Persia.

1. The Crimean Khanate in Ukraine (1441–1783).

We start this journey on the Crimean Peninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea.

The Khan of the Crimean Khanate was a descendant of Tuka-Timur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was Genghis Khan's eldest son. In the 1260s, the Golden Horde gave the Crimean Peninsula to the ancestor of the Crimean Khans, Uran Timur, to rule. The khanate was officially established in 1441.

Around 1500, the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray built the capital of Salachik. In 1532, Sahib I Giray, the son of Mengli I Giray, established a new capital called Bakhchisarai in a valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, generations of Crimean Khans built palaces and various mosque buildings here.

In 1550, the Khan ruling the Crimean Khanate was Sahib I Giray. He ascended the throne with the help of the Ottoman Empire. Later, he joined forces with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to attack the Moldavians, and in 1541, he raided Moscow and brought back spoils of war.

The location of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate.



The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, Islamic law (sharia), theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.











The Iron Gate (Demir Qapı) is the oldest structure in the Khan's Palace. It was built between 1503 and 1504 for the Crimean Khan by the architect Aleviz Novy, who had been invited by Ivan the Great to build churches in Moscow. The Iron Gate was likely first built at the Crimean Khan's previous residence, Devlet-Saray, and moved to the main palace building after the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was completed in 1532. "Demir Qapı" means "iron gate" in Crimean Tatar. The doorway is made of limestone and features Lombard-Venetian Renaissance decorative styles.











The Great Khan Mosque (Büyük Han Cami) in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was built in 1532 and is one of the earliest structures in the palace. The original mosque had multiple domes, similar to the Seljuk-style mosques popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1736. It was later restored by Khan Selamet II Giray (who reigned from 1740 to 1743) and converted to a tiled roof.

During the Soviet era, the mosque was closed and turned into an exhibition hall for the archaeological museum. After Russia occupied Crimea in 2014, the mosque underwent repairs, some of which caused damage to the building.



















The SaryGuzel Bathhouse was built in 1532 by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray. Like the Great Khan Mosque, it is one of the earliest buildings in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace. In Crimean Tatar, "Sarı" means "yellow or fair-skinned," and "Güzel" means "beautiful." The SaryGuzel Bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath. A furnace in the basement heated the floor with rising hot air, and cold and hot water were supplied through lead pipes. The bathhouse is divided into men's and women's sections, each with its own dome. The domes have star-shaped cutouts for ventilation and light, and there is an indoor courtyard with a fountain at the exit.

The SaryGuzel Bathhouse operated until 1924, when it was closed because it was considered unsafe. It has since been repaired and is now open for exhibitions.















The Khan's cemetery holds the grave of the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray (reigned 1551–1577). He was appointed Kalga (the second-in-command after the Khan) in 1530. Later, due to court struggles, he went to Istanbul and gradually gained the trust of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1551, with the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, he became the Crimean Khan.



2. The Astrakhan Khanate of Russia (1466–1556)

We continue east to the mouth of the Volga River.

The Astrakhan Khanate was located in the Volga Delta. Its founder, Mahmud bin Küchük, was a prince of the Golden Horde. The Astrakhan Khanate was mainly inhabited by Astrakhan Tatars and Nogais. The Khanate's caravans traveled between Moscow, Kazan, Crimea, Central Asia, and the Transcaucasus region. In 1532, the Astrakhan Khanate began to have contact with Russia. After Russia conquered Kazan in 1552, the Astrakhan Khanate could not escape the same fate.

In 1550, the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate was Hajji Tarkhan, located on the right bank of the Volga River, 12 kilometers north of the modern city of Astrakhan. The city of Hajji Tarkhan was built by the Golden Horde in the late 13th century, appeared in the Travels of Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, was destroyed by Timur's army in 1395, and was rebuilt by the Astrakhan Khanate in the 15th century. The city was occupied by the Crimean Khanate in 1547 and was finally burned down by Ivan the Terrible in 1556.

There are currently about 60,000 Astrakhan Tatars in Russia. Most live in the Astrakhan Oblast, with half living in the city of Astrakhan, where they have their own community and several mosques.

The location of the city of Hajji Tarkhan.



The White Mosque in Astrakhan, photographed by Polinadelia in 2014.



3. The Nogai Horde in Russia and Kazakhstan (1440–1634)

Continuing east from the Volga River, you reach the grasslands of the Nogai tribes.

Nogai was the great-grandson of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, and an important leader of the Golden Horde who ruled many Turkic-speaking tribes in the 13th century. A century later, the Golden Horde general Edigu ruled a large area from the Volga to the Ural River, and the tribes under his rule were also called the Nogai Horde.

We can find history about the Nogai Horde in the early 16th century in Russian records. In 1521, the Nogai were driven west by the Kazakhs and crossed the Volga River to attack Astrakhan. In 1522, the Kazakhs captured the capital of the Nogai Horde. In 1523, the Nogai Horde defeated the army that had briefly occupied Astrakhan.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was Yosuf Khan (1549–1555), who had helped Moscow against the Kazan Khanate in 1549.

Saray-Jük was the capital of the Nogai Horde, located on the border of Europe and Asia in western Kazakhstan. This city sat on a trade route between Europe and China and was an important commercial hub during the Golden Horde period. After being destroyed by Timur in 1395, it was rebuilt in the 1430s and 1440s.

The location of Saray-Jük.



The ruins of Saray-Jük, photographed by Yakov Fedorov in 2020.



4. The Qasim Khanate in Russia (1452–1681)

We head north to the modern-day Ryazan Oblast in Russia.

The Qasim Khanate was located in Russia's Ryazan Oblast. Its founder, Qasim Khan, was the son of Ulugh Muhammad, the founder of the Kazan Khanate. The Qasim Khanate served as a buffer state between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kazan Khanate and was under heavy Russian control.

In 1550, the Khan of the Qasim Khanate was Shahghali, who was installed as the Khan of the Kazan Khanate three times as a Russian vassal. In 1546, Shahghali was overthrown by the people of Kazan and fled back to the Qasim Khanate. Between 1547 and 1551, he participated in several Russian attacks on the Kazan Khanate and took part in the final Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552.

The capital of the Qasim Khanate, Qasimov, is located on the left bank of the Oka River in Russia's Ryazan Oblast, where one thousand Tatar-speaking Qasim Tatars still live today. The Khan Mosque in Qasimov was built by Shahghali in the mid-16th century. It was ordered to be demolished by Peter the Great in 1702, but the minaret (bangke ta) was preserved. This minaret is very similar to the Light Tower (Guangta) of the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou.

The Khan Mosque in Qasimov, photographed by Alexander Novikov in 2014.



The location of Qasimov.



5. The Kazan Khanate in Russia (1438–1552)

We headed east to the city of Kazan on the banks of the Volga River.

The Kazan Khanate was founded by Ulugh Muhammad, a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, who had ruled the Golden Horde twice. He lost control of the Golden Horde in 1436, then led his army to the Volga River and officially established the Kazan Khanate after capturing Kazan in 1438.

In 1521, the Kazan Khanate formed an alliance with the Astrakhan, Crimean, and Nogai Khanates to resist Moscow together. This caused dissatisfaction among pro-Russian factions within the Kazan Khanate, leading the state into internal conflict.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was the four-year-old Ötemish Giray, though the actual rulers were his mother, Söyembikä, and the prime minister (uğlan) Qoşçaq. Seeing the instability in the Kazan Khanate, Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent a large army to besiege Kazan in February 1550, but the thawing of the Volga River forced the Russians to retreat and only attack the outskirts of the city. Throughout that year, Söyembikä and Qoşçaq fought against the pro-Russian faction, and relations with Russia continued to worsen.

The Kazan Khanate built many homes and public buildings in Kazan, including the Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs, with tall minarets defining the city's skyline. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible invaded Kazan, destroyed the Kazan Khanate, and drove all Tatars out of the city, allowing only Russians to settle there. Between 1556 and 1562, Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Kazan Kremlin on the site of the old Kazan Khanate fortress. The mosques, the Kazan Khan's palace, and the tombs were initially used as armories and ammunition depots, but were eventually completely demolished in the 18th century.

In 1977, hydraulic engineers accidentally dug up a grave while laying rainwater pipes at the Kazan Kremlin and immediately contacted the archaeology department. Archaeological excavations lasted for 10 years, eventually uncovering five graves, two of which were confirmed to be those of the actual founders of the Kazan Khanate: Mäxmüd Khan (died 1463 or 1466) and his grandson, Möxämmät Ämin (died 1518). The tomb was originally made of white stone and finally collapsed in the 17th century.

For further research, the remains of the two Kazan Khans, Mäxmüd and Möxämmät Ämin, were kept at the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences for 40 years. In May 2017, after continuous efforts by the Tatar Muslims of Kazan, the two Kazan Khans were finally reburied not far from their original graves.







Between 2004 and 2005, the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences re-excavated the Kazan Khan tombs and discovered the graves of four more Khans: Xalil (died 1467), İbrahim (died 1478), Safa Giray (died 1549), and Canghali (died 1535). Today, these four Kazan Khan graves are protected under a glass roof. Safa Giray Khan came from the Giray family of the Crimean Khanate and served as the Khan of Kazan three times: from 1524–1531, 1535–1546, and 1546–1549. Safa Giray was an anti-Russian Khan. His first reign ended due to Moscow's attack on Kazan, and he regained the throne four years later after Kazan nobles overthrew the pro-Russian Khan. Eleven years later, due to internal unrest in Kazan, he was overthrown again by a pro-Russian Khan. Safa Giray fled to his father-in-law's Nogai tribe, and a few months later, he returned to Kazan with a Nogai army to become the Khan for the third time. Canghali Khan was originally the Khan of the Qasim Khanate, a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1532, Grand Prince Vasily III of Moscow defeated the Kazan Khan Safa Giray and installed the 16-year-old Canghali as the pro-Russian Khan of Kazan. He died in 1535 during a coup by Kazan nobles.









There is a performance about the Siege of Kazan at the entrance of the Kul Sharif Mosque inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1552, when Ivan the Terrible besieged Kazan, the last imam of the Kazan Khanate, Seid Kul Sharif, led the people in a final resistance and died in the city. Today, Seid Kul Sharif is a national hero for the Kazan Tatars, and the new Kul Sharif Mosque built in 2005 is named after him.





The National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan houses a letter written in 1523 by the Kazan Khan Sahib I Giray (reigned 1521–1524). A replica of this letter is also inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1521, to resist the control of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Kazan Khanate overthrew the pro-Moscow Khan Shahghali and welcomed Sahib I Giray from Crimea to Kazan to become the new Khan.



6. The Siberian Khanate of Russia (1468-1598)

We continue heading east to the meeting point of the Irtysh River and the Siberian River.

The Siberian (Sibir) Khanate was north of the Kazakh Khanate. It was the northernmost Muslim state in history, reaching all the way to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. In the 16th century, the capital of the Siberian Khanate was Qashliq, located on the right bank of the Irtysh River. Qashliq, also called the City of Siberia, was very prosperous in the early 16th century and had close trade ties with the Kazan Khanate. Later, it was permanently destroyed by the Cossacks, and it is hard to find any traces of it now.

The location of Qashliq city



7. The Kazakh Khanate of Kazakhstan (1465-1847)

Moving south from Siberia, we enter the vast Kazakh steppe.

The founders of the Kazakh Khanate, Janybek Khan and Kerey Khan, were both descendants of Tuqa Temur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was the eldest son of Genghis Khan.

In 1550, the Khanate was ruled by Haqnazar Khan (1537-1580). At that time, the Kazakh Khanate had rivals on all sides. He first defeated the Nogai Khanate, then the Khanate of Khiva and the Oirats, and then the Siberian Khanate and the Yarkent Khanate. This made the Kazakh Khanate stronger than ever, earning him the title of King of Turan (Shah-i-Turan).

The capital of the Kazakh Khanate at that time was Sighnaq, located in what is now the Kyzylorda Region of Kazakhstan. This was originally the capital of the Blue Horde and served as an important trade point for steppe tribes to exchange goods with the southern farming regions.

Sighnaq photographed by Azamat Nurlybekov in 2022



The location of Sighnaq





8. The Khanate of Khiva in Turkmenistan (1511–1920)

Continuing southwest, we go deep into the heart of Central Asia.

The Khanate of Khiva was located in the Khwarezm region south of the Aral Sea. It called itself Khwarezm, and its rulers were descendants of Shiban, the fifth son of Jochi, who was the eldest son of Genghis Khan. In the 16th century, the capital of the Khanate of Khiva was Konye-Urgench, located on the border of northern Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. After the Khanate moved its capital to Khiva in the 17th century, this place was gradually abandoned. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2005.

Before the Mongol conquest of Khwarezm, Konye-Urgench was one of the wealthiest cities in Central Asia. Most of the current ruins belong to that period, and very few remains from the Khanate of Khiva period have been preserved.

The location of Konye-Urgench





9. The Khanate of Bukhara in Uzbekistan (1500–1785)

Let us continue east into the ancient city of Bukhara.

In the early 16th century, Muhammad Shaybani, a descendant of Shiban (the fifth son of Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son), led Uzbek tribes living in the northern Central Asian steppes to overthrow the Timurid dynasty's rule in Transoxiana. He established the Shaybanid Dynasty (1506-1598), opening a new chapter in the history of the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

The capital of the Shaybanid Dynasty was initially in Samarkand, but it moved to Bukhara after 1533, which is why later generations called it the Khanate of Bukhara. Bukhara served as the capital of the Khanate of Bukhara for 252 years, from 1533 to 1785, and many buildings constructed during that time remain today.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built in 1535 by order of Ubaidullah, the Khan of the Shaybanid Dynasty (reigned 1533-1539). It was named after the Khan's Sufi mentor, Mir-i-Arab (also known as Sheikh Abdullah Yamani).

To compete for territory, Khan Ubaidullah fought many wars against the Persian Safavid dynasty, the most famous being the siege of the ancient Afghan city of Herat. During many raids on Persia, the Shaybanid Dynasty captured many prisoners. People say the Khan used the money from selling three thousand Persian captives to build the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built opposite the famous Kalyan mosque in Bukhara, forming a facing structure known as a "kosh."

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa closed in the 1920s but reopened in 1947. It became the only open madrasa in Bukhara at the time, and almost all the imams of that era were trained at this school.









The Khoja Zaynuddin mosque was built in the first half of the 16th century, located next to an ancient pond (Hauz) in Bukhara. This architectural style is known as a mosque-khanaka (Mosque-Khanaka). It serves as both a mosque and a Sufi center, where people can perform namaz and hold religious gatherings (ermeli).























The Bahouddin Naqshbandi Complex is an important Sufi holy site in Central Asia, often called the 'Little Mecca' of the region. It holds the tomb of Hazrat Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband, the founder of the famous Naqshbandia Sufi order.

During the Shaybanid dynasty, the Naqshbandia order eventually outperformed other Sufi groups to become the dominant order in the khanate. Unlike other Sufi orders that favored seclusion and leaving the world behind, the Naqshbandia order followed the principles set by its founder: 'solitude in the crowd, travel in the world, caution in action, and enjoyment of the moment.'

In 1544, the Shaybanid Khan Abdulaziz (who reigned from 1539 to 1550) built a Dakhma platform with marble railings at the shrine, along with a Sufi lodge (Khanaqa) nearby. Later, a large cemetery for Bukhara's rulers appeared near the shrine, as every ruler felt honored to be buried close to it.





During the Shaybanid period of the Bukhara Khanate, Tashkent's population and size gradually recovered, making it a commercial and cultural hub along the Silk Road. Most of the historical buildings still standing in Tashkent today were built during this time. Abu Bakr Mohammed Kaffal Shashi was a famous imam and scholar in Tashkent during the Samanid dynasty. After he passed away in 976, he was buried in a garden on the outskirts of Tashkent. The current Kaffal Shashi mausoleum was rebuilt in 1541 during the Shaybanid dynasty. It features the design of a Sufi lodge (Khanaqah), including a tall archway (Iwan) and a dome. Inside, besides Kaffal Shashi, his students are also buried there, including his three main disciples. The mausoleum was once covered in beautiful tiles, but only parts remain today, and they have been restored. Additionally, the window lattices on the mausoleum gate are already 500 years old. According to Tashkent legends, applying dust from this mausoleum to one's face can help a woman become pregnant, which attracts many women who are struggling to conceive.



















10. The Yarkent Khanate in China (1514-1680)

We crossed the Tianshan Mountains and arrived at the city of Shache in southern Xinjiang.

The Yarkent (Yarkent) Khanate was a state established in 1514 by Sultan Said Khan, a descendant of the Eastern Chagatai royal family. With Yarkent city (Shache) as its capital, it ruled southern Xinjiang and surrounding areas for over a hundred years until it was annexed by the Dzungar Khanate in 1680.

During the Yarkent Khanate's rule over southern Xinjiang, the Chagatai Mongols eventually shifted from nomadic life to settled living and merged into the Uyghur people. The Uyghurs also gradually developed into a modern ethnic group during this period, and the Twelve Muqam was finalized at this time as well.

'Yarkent Khanate' is actually a name used by modern scholars. In earlier local documents, the Persian word 'Moghuliye' was used, which means 'Mongol State'. Around the same time, Sultan Said Khan's cousin Babur established a state in northern India and also called it 'Moghul'. To distinguish them, Chinese usually translates them as 'Mengwu'er' and 'Mowo'er' respectively.

The founder of the Yarkent Khanate, Said Khan, was the third son of Ahmad Alaq, the ruler of Uyghurstan (modern-day Turpan area) in the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. In 1514, after stabilizing the Transoxiana region, the Uzbek army prepared to wipe out the Chagatai Mongols. After careful thought and discussion, Said Khan decided he could not withstand the Uzbek army's attack, so he left the Fergana Valley, crossed the Tianshan Mountains, and headed toward Yarkent.

In the spring of 1514, Said Khan led his army across the Tianshan Mountains and reached Kashgar via the Torugart Pass. At that time, southern Xinjiang was ruled by Abu Bakr, the leader of the Mongol Dughlat tribe. He was recruiting soldiers in Yarkent city. Said Khan fought a fierce battle outside the city against the Kashgar garrison and defeated the enemy. The enemy closed the gates and refused to come out, so Said Khan could not take the city and turned to attack the city of Yengisar. Said Khan besieged Yengisar for two months and finally captured it after six days of intense fighting.

Hearing that Yengisar had fallen, the Kashgar garrison abandoned the city and fled, so Said Khan marched directly toward Yarkent. When Abu Bakr heard this, he abandoned the city and fled to Hotan, and soon after, Said Khan entered Yarkent city. On September 3, 1514, Said Khan officially ascended the throne and established the Yarkent Khanate.

In 1516, Sultan Said reconciled with his older brother, Mansur Khan, who ruled the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. He agreed to mention Mansur's name during the khutbah (sermon) and to mint coins bearing Mansur's name. Southern Xinjiang welcomed long-awaited peace and order that year. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes it this way:

The reconciliation between these two brothers brought safety and prosperity to the residents. Anyone could travel alone between Hami in China and the Fergana region without needing food supplies or fearing robbery.

The location of Yarkand city.



Today, there is a site in the old city of Yarkand called Ordakul, which means royal palace pond. This was likely the location of the Yarkand Khanate's royal palace. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes Yarkand city during the early Yarkand Khanate period like this:

They diverted rivers into the city and built gardens. The main roads were lined with poplar trees. People walking around the city could spend half their journey in the shade of these trees, and most of the tree-lined paths had water channels on both sides.





Ordakul Mosque





To the west of Ordakul is the Jami Mosque. Jami is also translated as Jumu'ah, which refers to the weekly Friday congregational prayer. The Jami Mosque was reportedly founded by Sultan Said and later expanded during the reign of Abdullah Khan (reigned 1638–1669).

























After settling down in the oases of southern Xinjiang, many Chagatai Mongols began to complain about city life and missed the nomadic life on the steppes of their homeland, Moghulistan. the small pastures in the southern Xinjiang oases could not support the needs of the Mongol army. In 1522, Sultan Said sent his son, Abdurashid Khan, to lead troops into Moghulistan and conquer the Kyrgyz people living there.

In 1526, the Kazakhs entered Moghulistan and joined forces with the Kyrgyz, reaching a total of over 200,000 people. Sultan Said realized his strength was not enough to fight them, so he ordered all the Chagatai Mongols to return to southern Xinjiang. The Chagatai Mongols' five-year attempt to return to their nomadic homeland ultimately ended in failure.

After the failure in the north, Sultan Said turned his attention to attacking the south. In 1529, Sultan Said raided the Badakhshan region, which lay between the Yarkand Khanate and the Mughal Empire. This raid caused conflict between Sultan Said and his cousin, Emperor Babur. Emperor Babur wrote a letter to Sultan Said warning him that if he continued, you will know the rest yourself.

In 1532, Sultan Said personally led an army south to prepare for an expedition to Lhasa. While crossing the Karakoram Mountains, Sultan Said suffered from severe altitude sickness and lost his strength. In 1533, he decided to return to Yarkand to recover, but he died from altitude sickness while crossing the Karakoram Mountains again.

After Sultan Said died in 1533, his son, Abdurashid Khan (reigned 1533–1560), succeeded him. Abdurashid Khan built a mausoleum for his father at the west gate of Yarkand city. Later, this also became the royal mausoleum of the Yarkand Khanate.

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The tomb of Haji I Giray (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) was built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea. It is an octagonal tomb with a lead dome.

Archaeological excavations from 2006 to 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk and satin, with some resting on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum holds 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include 4 Crimean Khans: Hacı I Giray himself, Meñli I Giray, Nur Devlet—who fought Meñli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Meñli I Giray and builder of Bakhchysarai.

After research finished in 2009, these individuals were reburied with Muslim rites.













The Chain Madrasa (Zıncırlı Medrese) was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "Zyngyr," which means "chain." A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, so everyone who enters has to lower their head. The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof theory, fiqh, or Islamic law, theology, and hadith studies. The full course of study took ten years.

In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar Enlightenment movement, Gasprinski built a new two-story madrasa next to the old one. The madrasa closed in 1917 and became the Meñli Giray Research Institute. The institute was abolished in 1923. Later, it served as a teacher's college, a medical school, a wartime sanatorium used by German military personnel, and a mental health clinic after the war. Today, it is managed by the Bakhchysarai History, Culture, and Archaeology Museum.





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The Khan's cemetery holds the grave of the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray (reigned 1551–1577). He was appointed Kalga (the second-in-command after the Khan) in 1530. Later, due to court struggles, he went to Istanbul and gradually gained the trust of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. In 1551, with the help of Suleiman the Magnificent, he became the Crimean Khan.



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The SaryGuzel Bathhouse was built in 1532 by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray. Like the Great Khan Mosque, it is one of the earliest buildings in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace. In Crimean Tatar, "Sarı" means "yellow or fair-skinned," and "Güzel" means "beautiful." The SaryGuzel Bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath. A furnace in the basement heated the floor with rising hot air, and cold and hot water were supplied through lead pipes. The bathhouse is divided into men's and women's sections, each with its own dome. The domes have star-shaped cutouts for ventilation and light, and there is an indoor courtyard with a fountain at the exit.

The SaryGuzel Bathhouse operated until 1924, when it was closed because it was considered unsafe. It has since been repaired and is now open for exhibitions.



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The Iron Gate (Demir Qapı) is the oldest structure in the Khan's Palace. It was built between 1503 and 1504 for the Crimean Khan by the architect Aleviz Novy, who had been invited by Ivan the Great to build churches in Moscow. The Iron Gate was likely first built at the Crimean Khan's previous residence, Devlet-Saray, and moved to the main palace building after the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was completed in 1532. "Demir Qapı" means "iron gate" in Crimean Tatar. The doorway is made of limestone and features Lombard-Venetian Renaissance decorative styles.











The Great Khan Mosque (Büyük Han Cami) in the Bakhchysarai Khan's Palace was built in 1532 and is one of the earliest structures in the palace. The original mosque had multiple domes, similar to the Seljuk-style mosques popular in the Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. The mosque was destroyed by fire in 1736. It was later restored by Khan Selamet II Giray (who reigned from 1740 to 1743) and converted to a tiled roof.

During the Soviet era, the mosque was closed and turned into an exhibition hall for the archaeological museum. After Russia occupied Crimea in 2014, the mosque underwent repairs, some of which caused damage to the building.



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Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Mongol Empire Legacy and Muslim History (Part 1A) is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Mongol Empire, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and visited Tabriz in Iran. This time, we will visit 12 countries ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North Asia and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the early 13th century, as the Mongol Empire expanded, Genghis Khan began dividing his lands among his sons. Orda and Batu, the sons of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, received lands in southern Russia and Kazakhstan, which gradually formed the Golden Horde. Hulagu Khan, the son of Genghis Khan's fourth son Tolui, received lands in Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and parts of West Asia, which gradually formed the Ilkhanate. After the Yuan Dynasty was established in 1271, the original families of Ogedei and Chagatai, led by Kaidu, opposed Kublai Khan. This led to the formation of the Ogedei Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate, completing the four great Mongol khanates.

After the 14th century, the territory of the Ogedei Khanate was first divided between the Chagatai Khanate and the Yuan Dynasty, and later the Ilkhanate and the Chagatai Khanate also began to split apart. The Golden Horde was the last to decline, splitting into several khanates in the early 15th century.

In 1550, there were 12 countries and regimes established by descendants of Genghis Khan, ruling a vast area from Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and China's Xinjiang to Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. They were:

1. The Crimean Khanate ruled the Crimean Peninsula.

2. The Astrakhan Khanate ruled the Volga Delta.

3. The Nogai Horde ruled the region between the Volga and Ural rivers.

4. The Qasim Khanate ruled Kasimov in the modern-day Ryazan Oblast of Russia.

5. The Kazan Khanate ruled the middle Volga region.

6. The Siberian Khanate ruled the area around the Irtysh River.

7. The Kazakh Khanate ruled the Kazakh Steppe.

8. The Khanate of Khiva ruled the Khwarezm region.

9. The Khanate of Bukhara ruled the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

10. The Yarkent Khanate ruled the southern Xinjiang region.

11. Haidar ruled the Kashmir region.

12. The Arghun dynasty ruled southern Afghanistan and the Sindh region of Pakistan.

Additionally, the Mughal Empire was briefly overthrown at this time, and its second emperor, Humayun, was in exile in Persia.

1. The Crimean Khanate in Ukraine (1441–1783).

We start this journey on the Crimean Peninsula on the northern shore of the Black Sea.

The Khan of the Crimean Khanate was a descendant of Tuka-Timur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was Genghis Khan's eldest son. In the 1260s, the Golden Horde gave the Crimean Peninsula to the ancestor of the Crimean Khans, Uran Timur, to rule. The khanate was officially established in 1441.

Around 1500, the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray built the capital of Salachik. In 1532, Sahib I Giray, the son of Mengli I Giray, established a new capital called Bakhchisarai in a valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, generations of Crimean Khans built palaces and various mosque buildings here.

In 1550, the Khan ruling the Crimean Khanate was Sahib I Giray. He ascended the throne with the help of the Ottoman Empire. Later, he joined forces with the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to attack the Moldavians, and in 1541, he raided Moscow and brought back spoils of war.

The location of Bakhchisarai, the capital of the Crimean Khanate.

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5. The Kazan Khanate in Russia (1438–1552)

We headed east to the city of Kazan on the banks of the Volga River.

The Kazan Khanate was founded by Ulugh Muhammad, a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, who had ruled the Golden Horde twice. He lost control of the Golden Horde in 1436, then led his army to the Volga River and officially established the Kazan Khanate after capturing Kazan in 1438.

In 1521, the Kazan Khanate formed an alliance with the Astrakhan, Crimean, and Nogai Khanates to resist Moscow together. This caused dissatisfaction among pro-Russian factions within the Kazan Khanate, leading the state into internal conflict.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was the four-year-old Ötemish Giray, though the actual rulers were his mother, Söyembikä, and the prime minister (uğlan) Qoşçaq. Seeing the instability in the Kazan Khanate, Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent a large army to besiege Kazan in February 1550, but the thawing of the Volga River forced the Russians to retreat and only attack the outskirts of the city. Throughout that year, Söyembikä and Qoşçaq fought against the pro-Russian faction, and relations with Russia continued to worsen.

The Kazan Khanate built many homes and public buildings in Kazan, including the Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs, with tall minarets defining the city's skyline. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible invaded Kazan, destroyed the Kazan Khanate, and drove all Tatars out of the city, allowing only Russians to settle there. Between 1556 and 1562, Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Kazan Kremlin on the site of the old Kazan Khanate fortress. The mosques, the Kazan Khan's palace, and the tombs were initially used as armories and ammunition depots, but were eventually completely demolished in the 18th century.

In 1977, hydraulic engineers accidentally dug up a grave while laying rainwater pipes at the Kazan Kremlin and immediately contacted the archaeology department. Archaeological excavations lasted for 10 years, eventually uncovering five graves, two of which were confirmed to be those of the actual founders of the Kazan Khanate: Mäxmüd Khan (died 1463 or 1466) and his grandson, Möxämmät Ämin (died 1518). The tomb was originally made of white stone and finally collapsed in the 17th century.

For further research, the remains of the two Kazan Khans, Mäxmüd and Möxämmät Ämin, were kept at the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences for 40 years. In May 2017, after continuous efforts by the Tatar Muslims of Kazan, the two Kazan Khans were finally reburied not far from their original graves.







Between 2004 and 2005, the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences re-excavated the Kazan Khan tombs and discovered the graves of four more Khans: Xalil (died 1467), İbrahim (died 1478), Safa Giray (died 1549), and Canghali (died 1535). Today, these four Kazan Khan graves are protected under a glass roof. Safa Giray Khan came from the Giray family of the Crimean Khanate and served as the Khan of Kazan three times: from 1524–1531, 1535–1546, and 1546–1549. Safa Giray was an anti-Russian Khan. His first reign ended due to Moscow's attack on Kazan, and he regained the throne four years later after Kazan nobles overthrew the pro-Russian Khan. Eleven years later, due to internal unrest in Kazan, he was overthrown again by a pro-Russian Khan. Safa Giray fled to his father-in-law's Nogai tribe, and a few months later, he returned to Kazan with a Nogai army to become the Khan for the third time. Canghali Khan was originally the Khan of the Qasim Khanate, a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1532, Grand Prince Vasily III of Moscow defeated the Kazan Khan Safa Giray and installed the 16-year-old Canghali as the pro-Russian Khan of Kazan. He died in 1535 during a coup by Kazan nobles.









There is a performance about the Siege of Kazan at the entrance of the Kul Sharif Mosque inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1552, when Ivan the Terrible besieged Kazan, the last imam of the Kazan Khanate, Seid Kul Sharif, led the people in a final resistance and died in the city. Today, Seid Kul Sharif is a national hero for the Kazan Tatars, and the new Kul Sharif Mosque built in 2005 is named after him.





The National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan houses a letter written in 1523 by the Kazan Khan Sahib I Giray (reigned 1521–1524). A replica of this letter is also inside the Kazan Kremlin. In 1521, to resist the control of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, the Kazan Khanate overthrew the pro-Moscow Khan Shahghali and welcomed Sahib I Giray from Crimea to Kazan to become the new Khan.



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2. The Astrakhan Khanate of Russia (1466–1556)

We continue east to the mouth of the Volga River.

The Astrakhan Khanate was located in the Volga Delta. Its founder, Mahmud bin Küchük, was a prince of the Golden Horde. The Astrakhan Khanate was mainly inhabited by Astrakhan Tatars and Nogais. The Khanate's caravans traveled between Moscow, Kazan, Crimea, Central Asia, and the Transcaucasus region. In 1532, the Astrakhan Khanate began to have contact with Russia. After Russia conquered Kazan in 1552, the Astrakhan Khanate could not escape the same fate.

In 1550, the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate was Hajji Tarkhan, located on the right bank of the Volga River, 12 kilometers north of the modern city of Astrakhan. The city of Hajji Tarkhan was built by the Golden Horde in the late 13th century, appeared in the Travels of Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, was destroyed by Timur's army in 1395, and was rebuilt by the Astrakhan Khanate in the 15th century. The city was occupied by the Crimean Khanate in 1547 and was finally burned down by Ivan the Terrible in 1556.

There are currently about 60,000 Astrakhan Tatars in Russia. Most live in the Astrakhan Oblast, with half living in the city of Astrakhan, where they have their own community and several mosques.

The location of the city of Hajji Tarkhan.



The White Mosque in Astrakhan, photographed by Polinadelia in 2014.



3. The Nogai Horde in Russia and Kazakhstan (1440–1634)

Continuing east from the Volga River, you reach the grasslands of the Nogai tribes.

Nogai was the great-grandson of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, and an important leader of the Golden Horde who ruled many Turkic-speaking tribes in the 13th century. A century later, the Golden Horde general Edigu ruled a large area from the Volga to the Ural River, and the tribes under his rule were also called the Nogai Horde.

We can find history about the Nogai Horde in the early 16th century in Russian records. In 1521, the Nogai were driven west by the Kazakhs and crossed the Volga River to attack Astrakhan. In 1522, the Kazakhs captured the capital of the Nogai Horde. In 1523, the Nogai Horde defeated the army that had briefly occupied Astrakhan.

In 1550, the Khan of the Kazan Khanate was Yosuf Khan (1549–1555), who had helped Moscow against the Kazan Khanate in 1549.

Saray-Jük was the capital of the Nogai Horde, located on the border of Europe and Asia in western Kazakhstan. This city sat on a trade route between Europe and China and was an important commercial hub during the Golden Horde period. After being destroyed by Timur in 1395, it was rebuilt in the 1430s and 1440s.

The location of Saray-Jük.



The ruins of Saray-Jük, photographed by Yakov Fedorov in 2020.



4. The Qasim Khanate in Russia (1452–1681)

We head north to the modern-day Ryazan Oblast in Russia.

The Qasim Khanate was located in Russia's Ryazan Oblast. Its founder, Qasim Khan, was the son of Ulugh Muhammad, the founder of the Kazan Khanate. The Qasim Khanate served as a buffer state between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Kazan Khanate and was under heavy Russian control.

In 1550, the Khan of the Qasim Khanate was Shahghali, who was installed as the Khan of the Kazan Khanate three times as a Russian vassal. In 1546, Shahghali was overthrown by the people of Kazan and fled back to the Qasim Khanate. Between 1547 and 1551, he participated in several Russian attacks on the Kazan Khanate and took part in the final Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552.

The capital of the Qasim Khanate, Qasimov, is located on the left bank of the Oka River in Russia's Ryazan Oblast, where one thousand Tatar-speaking Qasim Tatars still live today. The Khan Mosque in Qasimov was built by Shahghali in the mid-16th century. It was ordered to be demolished by Peter the Great in 1702, but the minaret (bangke ta) was preserved. This minaret is very similar to the Light Tower (Guangta) of the Huaisheng Mosque in Guangzhou.

The Khan Mosque in Qasimov, photographed by Alexander Novikov in 2014.



The location of Qasimov.



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6. The Siberian Khanate of Russia (1468-1598)

We continue heading east to the meeting point of the Irtysh River and the Siberian River.

The Siberian (Sibir) Khanate was north of the Kazakh Khanate. It was the northernmost Muslim state in history, reaching all the way to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. In the 16th century, the capital of the Siberian Khanate was Qashliq, located on the right bank of the Irtysh River. Qashliq, also called the City of Siberia, was very prosperous in the early 16th century and had close trade ties with the Kazan Khanate. Later, it was permanently destroyed by the Cossacks, and it is hard to find any traces of it now.

The location of Qashliq city



7. The Kazakh Khanate of Kazakhstan (1465-1847)

Moving south from Siberia, we enter the vast Kazakh steppe.

The founders of the Kazakh Khanate, Janybek Khan and Kerey Khan, were both descendants of Tuqa Temur, the thirteenth son of Jochi, who was the eldest son of Genghis Khan.

In 1550, the Khanate was ruled by Haqnazar Khan (1537-1580). At that time, the Kazakh Khanate had rivals on all sides. He first defeated the Nogai Khanate, then the Khanate of Khiva and the Oirats, and then the Siberian Khanate and the Yarkent Khanate. This made the Kazakh Khanate stronger than ever, earning him the title of King of Turan (Shah-i-Turan).

The capital of the Kazakh Khanate at that time was Sighnaq, located in what is now the Kyzylorda Region of Kazakhstan. This was originally the capital of the Blue Horde and served as an important trade point for steppe tribes to exchange goods with the southern farming regions.

Sighnaq photographed by Azamat Nurlybekov in 2022



The location of Sighnaq





8. The Khanate of Khiva in Turkmenistan (1511–1920)

Continuing southwest, we go deep into the heart of Central Asia.

The Khanate of Khiva was located in the Khwarezm region south of the Aral Sea. It called itself Khwarezm, and its rulers were descendants of Shiban, the fifth son of Jochi, who was the eldest son of Genghis Khan. In the 16th century, the capital of the Khanate of Khiva was Konye-Urgench, located on the border of northern Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. After the Khanate moved its capital to Khiva in the 17th century, this place was gradually abandoned. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2005.

Before the Mongol conquest of Khwarezm, Konye-Urgench was one of the wealthiest cities in Central Asia. Most of the current ruins belong to that period, and very few remains from the Khanate of Khiva period have been preserved.

The location of Konye-Urgench





9. The Khanate of Bukhara in Uzbekistan (1500–1785)

Let us continue east into the ancient city of Bukhara.

In the early 16th century, Muhammad Shaybani, a descendant of Shiban (the fifth son of Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son), led Uzbek tribes living in the northern Central Asian steppes to overthrow the Timurid dynasty's rule in Transoxiana. He established the Shaybanid Dynasty (1506-1598), opening a new chapter in the history of the Transoxiana region of Central Asia.

The capital of the Shaybanid Dynasty was initially in Samarkand, but it moved to Bukhara after 1533, which is why later generations called it the Khanate of Bukhara. Bukhara served as the capital of the Khanate of Bukhara for 252 years, from 1533 to 1785, and many buildings constructed during that time remain today.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built in 1535 by order of Ubaidullah, the Khan of the Shaybanid Dynasty (reigned 1533-1539). It was named after the Khan's Sufi mentor, Mir-i-Arab (also known as Sheikh Abdullah Yamani).

To compete for territory, Khan Ubaidullah fought many wars against the Persian Safavid dynasty, the most famous being the siege of the ancient Afghan city of Herat. During many raids on Persia, the Shaybanid Dynasty captured many prisoners. People say the Khan used the money from selling three thousand Persian captives to build the Mir-i-Arab Madrasa.

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa was built opposite the famous Kalyan mosque in Bukhara, forming a facing structure known as a "kosh."

The Mir-i-Arab Madrasa closed in the 1920s but reopened in 1947. It became the only open madrasa in Bukhara at the time, and almost all the imams of that era were trained at this school.









The Khoja Zaynuddin mosque was built in the first half of the 16th century, located next to an ancient pond (Hauz) in Bukhara. This architectural style is known as a mosque-khanaka (Mosque-Khanaka). It serves as both a mosque and a Sufi center, where people can perform namaz and hold religious gatherings (ermeli).























The Bahouddin Naqshbandi Complex is an important Sufi holy site in Central Asia, often called the 'Little Mecca' of the region. It holds the tomb of Hazrat Muhammad Bahauddin Shah Naqshband, the founder of the famous Naqshbandia Sufi order.

During the Shaybanid dynasty, the Naqshbandia order eventually outperformed other Sufi groups to become the dominant order in the khanate. Unlike other Sufi orders that favored seclusion and leaving the world behind, the Naqshbandia order followed the principles set by its founder: 'solitude in the crowd, travel in the world, caution in action, and enjoyment of the moment.'

In 1544, the Shaybanid Khan Abdulaziz (who reigned from 1539 to 1550) built a Dakhma platform with marble railings at the shrine, along with a Sufi lodge (Khanaqa) nearby. Later, a large cemetery for Bukhara's rulers appeared near the shrine, as every ruler felt honored to be buried close to it.





During the Shaybanid period of the Bukhara Khanate, Tashkent's population and size gradually recovered, making it a commercial and cultural hub along the Silk Road. Most of the historical buildings still standing in Tashkent today were built during this time. Abu Bakr Mohammed Kaffal Shashi was a famous imam and scholar in Tashkent during the Samanid dynasty. After he passed away in 976, he was buried in a garden on the outskirts of Tashkent. The current Kaffal Shashi mausoleum was rebuilt in 1541 during the Shaybanid dynasty. It features the design of a Sufi lodge (Khanaqah), including a tall archway (Iwan) and a dome. Inside, besides Kaffal Shashi, his students are also buried there, including his three main disciples. The mausoleum was once covered in beautiful tiles, but only parts remain today, and they have been restored. Additionally, the window lattices on the mausoleum gate are already 500 years old. According to Tashkent legends, applying dust from this mausoleum to one's face can help a woman become pregnant, which attracts many women who are struggling to conceive.



















10. The Yarkent Khanate in China (1514-1680)

We crossed the Tianshan Mountains and arrived at the city of Shache in southern Xinjiang.

The Yarkent (Yarkent) Khanate was a state established in 1514 by Sultan Said Khan, a descendant of the Eastern Chagatai royal family. With Yarkent city (Shache) as its capital, it ruled southern Xinjiang and surrounding areas for over a hundred years until it was annexed by the Dzungar Khanate in 1680.

During the Yarkent Khanate's rule over southern Xinjiang, the Chagatai Mongols eventually shifted from nomadic life to settled living and merged into the Uyghur people. The Uyghurs also gradually developed into a modern ethnic group during this period, and the Twelve Muqam was finalized at this time as well.

'Yarkent Khanate' is actually a name used by modern scholars. In earlier local documents, the Persian word 'Moghuliye' was used, which means 'Mongol State'. Around the same time, Sultan Said Khan's cousin Babur established a state in northern India and also called it 'Moghul'. To distinguish them, Chinese usually translates them as 'Mengwu'er' and 'Mowo'er' respectively.

The founder of the Yarkent Khanate, Said Khan, was the third son of Ahmad Alaq, the ruler of Uyghurstan (modern-day Turpan area) in the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. In 1514, after stabilizing the Transoxiana region, the Uzbek army prepared to wipe out the Chagatai Mongols. After careful thought and discussion, Said Khan decided he could not withstand the Uzbek army's attack, so he left the Fergana Valley, crossed the Tianshan Mountains, and headed toward Yarkent.

In the spring of 1514, Said Khan led his army across the Tianshan Mountains and reached Kashgar via the Torugart Pass. At that time, southern Xinjiang was ruled by Abu Bakr, the leader of the Mongol Dughlat tribe. He was recruiting soldiers in Yarkent city. Said Khan fought a fierce battle outside the city against the Kashgar garrison and defeated the enemy. The enemy closed the gates and refused to come out, so Said Khan could not take the city and turned to attack the city of Yengisar. Said Khan besieged Yengisar for two months and finally captured it after six days of intense fighting.

Hearing that Yengisar had fallen, the Kashgar garrison abandoned the city and fled, so Said Khan marched directly toward Yarkent. When Abu Bakr heard this, he abandoned the city and fled to Hotan, and soon after, Said Khan entered Yarkent city. On September 3, 1514, Said Khan officially ascended the throne and established the Yarkent Khanate.

In 1516, Sultan Said reconciled with his older brother, Mansur Khan, who ruled the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. He agreed to mention Mansur's name during the khutbah (sermon) and to mint coins bearing Mansur's name. Southern Xinjiang welcomed long-awaited peace and order that year. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes it this way:

The reconciliation between these two brothers brought safety and prosperity to the residents. Anyone could travel alone between Hami in China and the Fergana region without needing food supplies or fearing robbery.

The location of Yarkand city.



Today, there is a site in the old city of Yarkand called Ordakul, which means royal palace pond. This was likely the location of the Yarkand Khanate's royal palace. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes Yarkand city during the early Yarkand Khanate period like this:

They diverted rivers into the city and built gardens. The main roads were lined with poplar trees. People walking around the city could spend half their journey in the shade of these trees, and most of the tree-lined paths had water channels on both sides.





Ordakul Mosque





To the west of Ordakul is the Jami Mosque. Jami is also translated as Jumu'ah, which refers to the weekly Friday congregational prayer. The Jami Mosque was reportedly founded by Sultan Said and later expanded during the reign of Abdullah Khan (reigned 1638–1669).

























After settling down in the oases of southern Xinjiang, many Chagatai Mongols began to complain about city life and missed the nomadic life on the steppes of their homeland, Moghulistan. the small pastures in the southern Xinjiang oases could not support the needs of the Mongol army. In 1522, Sultan Said sent his son, Abdurashid Khan, to lead troops into Moghulistan and conquer the Kyrgyz people living there.

In 1526, the Kazakhs entered Moghulistan and joined forces with the Kyrgyz, reaching a total of over 200,000 people. Sultan Said realized his strength was not enough to fight them, so he ordered all the Chagatai Mongols to return to southern Xinjiang. The Chagatai Mongols' five-year attempt to return to their nomadic homeland ultimately ended in failure.

After the failure in the north, Sultan Said turned his attention to attacking the south. In 1529, Sultan Said raided the Badakhshan region, which lay between the Yarkand Khanate and the Mughal Empire. This raid caused conflict between Sultan Said and his cousin, Emperor Babur. Emperor Babur wrote a letter to Sultan Said warning him that if he continued, you will know the rest yourself.

In 1532, Sultan Said personally led an army south to prepare for an expedition to Lhasa. While crossing the Karakoram Mountains, Sultan Said suffered from severe altitude sickness and lost his strength. In 1533, he decided to return to Yarkand to recover, but he died from altitude sickness while crossing the Karakoram Mountains again.

After Sultan Said died in 1533, his son, Abdurashid Khan (reigned 1533–1560), succeeded him. Abdurashid Khan built a mausoleum for his father at the west gate of Yarkand city. Later, this also became the royal mausoleum of the Yarkand Khanate.

The current mausoleum of Sultan Said was rebuilt in 1997. view all

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Summary: Tianjin Tianmu Village — Hui Muslim Food and Mosque History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: At noon on December 25, 2016, I went to Tianmu in Tianjin to explore and eat. I took the 9:55 high-speed train from Beijing South Railway Station to Tianjin West Railway Station, rode the subway for two stops to Qinjian. The account keeps its focus on Tianjin Tianmu, Hui Muslims, Halal Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

At noon on December 25, 2016, I went to Tianmu in Tianjin to explore and eat. I took the 9:55 high-speed train from Beijing South Railway Station to Tianjin West Railway Station, rode the subway for two stops to Qinjian Road, and then transferred to a bus for one stop to reach Tianmu Village.

Tianmu Village was originally called Mujiazhuang, commonly known as Muzhuangzi. During the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty, a boatman named Mu Zhonghe from Qiantang County, Hangzhou Prefecture, Zhejiang Province, followed Prince Yan Zhu Di along the Grand Canal to transport grain. After unloading, he traveled south with the current and settled by the North Grand Canal. He continued working in canal transport, which led to the formation of Mujiazhuang.



In 1404 (the second year of the Yongle reign), the Mu family built the first mosque, which later became the Tianmu North Mosque. After the Mujiazhuang mosque was built, Hui Muslims from places like Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Hebei kept arriving along the canal to settle down, and Mujiazhuang gradually grew.

During the Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty, most people in Mujiazhuang made a living from canal transport and were called boat keepers. In the middle and late Qing Dynasty, the upper reaches of the North Grand Canal gradually dried up, limiting canal transport, so some boat owners started driving carts or doing business. These cart drivers used a large cart gate as their symbol and were called cart keepers.

During the Xianfeng and Tongzhi reigns of the Qing Dynasty, a new village formed south of Mujiazhuang, named after the Tianqi Temple in the village. In 1951, Mujiazhuang and Tianqi Temple merged to become Tianmu Village.

In 2009, Tianmu Village began demolition. In 2010, 2,400 households moved into the Tianmu Dongyuan residential area, and construction of Tianmu Xiyuan began in 2012. By 2016, Tianmu Village had become ruins, and halal snacks were concentrated on Tianmu Shunyi Road.



The information about the history of Tianmu Village in this article comes partly from the Draft History of the Hui Muslims in Tianmu.



In the late Qing Dynasty, the cattle and sheep industry in Mujiazhuang developed, forming a trade called jizhuang, or consignment farming. Wealthy families in Mujiazhuang bought large numbers of cattle and sheep from the Mongolian grasslands in Zhangjiakou and Duolun County, Inner Mongolia. They bought them thin and fattened them up, hiring people to drive them all the way back to Tianjin, a process known in the trade as driving the herd. Consignment farming was divided into cattle and sheep; those who consigned cattle were called cattle pen keepers, and those who consigned sheep were called sheep pen keepers. In the late Qing and early Republic period, there were over twenty households in Mujiazhuang doing consignment farming. The four largest sheep pen keepers were Desheng, Yicheng, Yuanshun, and Yishuncheng, trading 100,000 sheep annually. After the Republic of China was established, frequent wars and blocked trade routes made it very easy for hundreds or thousands of cattle and sheep to be robbed by soldiers and bandits. By the Japanese occupation era, the consignment farming in Mujiazhuang had completely collapsed.

The cattle and sheep driven back by consignment farmers were wholesaled to small vendors, known as small-scale selling. The earliest small-scale selling involved a wooden box with two heavy ends placed on a wheelbarrow. The middle of the box had a hinged lid, with mutton inside and a meat cleaver on one side. The wooden box was brushed with tung oil, making it shiny, and the sides were painted with black characters reading, Halal Ancient Faith, Western Region Hui Muslims.

After the Republic of China, more and more Hui Muslims from Mujiazhuang opened beef and mutton shops across Tianjin, reaching 110 shops around the time of the July 7th Incident.



Now that I have introduced the general situation of Tianmu Village, let's start exploring and eating.

After getting off the bus, I saw an old man selling steamed pear paste (shuligao) next to the Tianmu Village bus stop. There were many flavors, and the fruit jam was also made by the old man himself. I chose red bean paste, brown sugar, and fruit jam flavors; the dark part at the bottom was made from purple sweet potato powder.











I went into Shunyi Road. Shunyi Road is the current commercial center of Tianmu, with snack shops lined up one after another. As I walked, I found a shop selling candied hawthorn skewers (tangdui). In Tianjin, some candied hawthorn skewers are stuffed with red bean paste and peanuts, which taste great.

















I continued exploring and ate the meat pie and wonton soup (lingjiaotang) from Haji Beef Pie. Tianjin's wonton soup (lingjiaotang), like the one in Jining, involves pouring a beaten egg into the soup, which I really like.















Men wearing prayer caps (libaimao) kept riding their bikes in groups toward the ruins of Tianmu Village. I checked the time and realized it was almost time for the afternoon prayer (peshini), so I followed the older men toward the North Mosque of Tianmu in Tianjin. The North Mosque of Tianmu was built in 1404, the second year of the Yongle reign. It was burned down by retreating Kuomintang troops on November 25, 1948. It was rebuilt in the 1950s and again in 1992, and today it is the most striking building among the ruins of Tianmu Village.















After leaving the mosque, I continued walking along Shunyi Road. My biggest find this time was at the Sanwei Bookstore on Shunyi Road, where I bought many hand-copied and lithographed small scriptures (xiaojing), which use Arabic script to write Chinese. This included the famous Weigaye Dictionary, a vocabulary list for the Weigaye religious law text. It is very interesting to see the xiaojing, Chinese characters, and Arabic side by side. I also found the Three-Character Classic of Islam (Huijiao Sanziwen) and a 1951 biography of Muhammad published by the Beijing Muslim Newspaper and Book Agency. I am very satisfied. view all

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Summary: Beijing Zhangjiawan — Canal Town, Mosques and Hui Food is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Zhangjiawan is now an ordinary village south of Tongzhou, Beijing, featuring an ancient Ming Dynasty bridge and a street for Hui Muslim food. The account keeps its focus on Zhangjiawan, Beijing Canal, Halal Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Zhangjiawan is now an ordinary village south of Tongzhou, Beijing, featuring an ancient Ming Dynasty bridge and a street for Hui Muslim food. But hundreds of years ago, this was a major wharf on the Grand Canal and the most important transport hub east of Beijing, holding a status similar to Beijing West or South railway stations today. I visited this place in November 2016.

The real rise of Zhangjiawan began when the famous Yuan Dynasty hydraulic engineer Guo Shoujing built the Tonghui River in 1292. The biggest difference between the Yuan Dynasty Tonghui River and the modern one is the eastern section. The modern Tonghui River flows east and joins the North Canal near the Tongzhou Beiguan station on Line 6, but the Yuan Dynasty river turned southeast at the Guanzhuang station on the Batong Line and flowed into the Lu River from Zhangjiawan.

Shortly before the Tonghui River was finished, Zhang Xuan, who was in charge of maritime transport for the Yuan Dynasty, opened a route for grain ships from the Yangtze River estuary along the coast to Zhigu (Tianjin). The opening of the Tonghui River allowed Zhang Xuan to guide grain ships along the Lu River into the Tonghui River, reaching Jishuitan, the lake inside the Yuan capital. Zhang Xuan built a wharf at the intersection of the Lu River and the Tonghui River, making it a key transport hub. Ming Dynasty historical records state that the "Marquis Zhang Xuan supervised maritime transport here," and later generations named this wharf Zhangjiawan.

After Zhangjiawan became a canal transport wharf, merchants kept moving here, including many Hui Muslims. Starting in the early Ming Dynasty, a Hui Muslim community formed in Zhangjiawan, and they built the Zhangjiawan Mosque.



Fried dough crisps (gezhihe) are a local specialty east of Beijing. Since my grandmother lived on the border of Chaoyang and Tongzhou, I grew up eating them whenever her relatives brought them over.



















Zhangjiawan Mosque

I arrived at the mosque just in time for the afternoon prayer (peshini). Grandfathers and grandmothers were walking in one after another, and the sound of "salam" echoed back and forth, which felt very warm. The Zhangjiawan Mosque was built in the early Ming Dynasty, renovated during the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty, and the fourth section of the prayer hall was expanded in 1956. In the 1960s and 70s, it became a primary school for Hui Muslims, and the south lecture hall and the mountain gate were demolished. The primary school moved out in 1982, and a new gate facing the street to the north was added. It was renovated in 1998, but the layout of the third and fourth sections of the prayer hall was swapped, and the south lecture hall and mountain gate were rebuilt.























The end of the Grand Canal

In the early Ming Dynasty (the 1430s), the Baifu Spring, which supplied the upper reaches of the Tonghui River, dried up due to the construction of the Ming Tombs. Water levels dropped, making canal transport difficult, and Zhangjiawan suddenly became the terminus of the Grand Canal. Ships from the south had to unload their cargo at Zhangjiawan to be moved onto carts for transport to Beijing, making Zhangjiawan a vital transport hub.

It wasn't until 1528, a century later, that the Jiajing Emperor approved the dredging of the Tonghui River, changing the eastern section so it flowed from Tongzhou Beiguan into the North Canal instead of Zhangjiawan. To ensure canal transport, regulations required cargo ships to continue docking at Zhangjiawan, so both Zhangjiawan and Tongzhou City served as important wharves on the northern section of the Grand Canal.



Beijing, Tongzhou, and Zhangjiawan in the Yongzheng edition of the "Map of the Canal's Origins"



















I bought some candied hawthorn (tanghulu) in Zhangjiawan, and it was delicious.





Empress Xiao Bridge (Xiao Taihou Qiao)

In 1550, Altan Khan led his Mongol cavalry to attack Beijing, an event known in history as the "Gengxu Incident." He set up his camp on the east bank of the Lu River, occupied Tongzhou, and raided areas outside Beijing and the Ming imperial tombs to the west. For over 20 years after the "Gengxu Incident," Altan Khan raided the south every year, forcing the Ming Dynasty to strengthen its northern border defenses. To protect the canal transport, Zhangjiawan City was built in 1564. Zhangjiawan City was built in a hurry, taking only three months. It had a perimeter of about 3,015 meters, with four city gates and three water gates. The south wall used the Empress Xiao grain transport river as a moat, the east wall used the Grand Canal as a moat, and the west and north walls had moats dug for protection.

The area outside the south gate of Zhangjiawan became a busy market because it was near the canal docks. There was originally a wooden bridge over the Empress Xiao River outside the south gate, commonly known as Empress Xiao Bridge. After Zhangjiawan was built, the wooden bridge could not handle the traffic, so the Ming Emperor Shenzong ordered a three-arch stone bridge to be built in 1605 and named it Tongyun Bridge. Even though it had the official name Tongyun Bridge, people were still used to calling it Empress Xiao Bridge.















The Tongzhou District Museum keeps some relics from the ancient city of Zhangjiawan. The Shanxi Guild Hall is on the east side of Shili Street inside Zhangjiawan. It was a Guandi Temple in the Ming Dynasty and was rebuilt as the Shanxi Guild Hall during the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty.



Porcelain shards unearthed inside the east gate of Zhangjiawan are kept in the Tongzhou Museum.



Ming Dynasty city bricks from Zhangjiawan are kept in the Tongzhou Museum. view all

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Summary: Beijing Tongzhou Nanguan — Hui Muslim Quarter and Food is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: I visited Nanguan in Tongzhou twice in January and November 2016 to eat and explore, and I recorded what the area looked like back then. The account keeps its focus on Tongzhou Nanguan, Hui Muslims, Beijing Halal Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

I visited Nanguan in Tongzhou twice in January and November 2016 to eat and explore, and I recorded what the area looked like back then. Later, Nanguan went through renovations, and it looks completely different from the photos I took at the time.

The formation of the Hui Muslim district in Tongzhou Nanguan

In 1292 (the 29th year of the Zhiyuan era of the Yuan Dynasty), Guo Shoujing oversaw the digging of the Tonghui Canal, which ran directly from Jishuitan in Dadu to the Luhe River in Tongzhou, making Tongzhou an important hub for grain transport. As canal transport flourished, many Hui Muslims moved to Tongzhou and began forming a community in Nanguan.

In 1368 (the first year of the Hongwu era), the Ming Dynasty built the Tongzhou city wall, expanding it nearly twice as far south as the Yuan Dynasty city and including the Hui Muslim community of Nanguan within it. The Ming Dynasty Tongzhou city had four gates, including the south gate called Yingxun Gate, and the South Main Street inside the gate and the Eighteen and a Half Alleys (Shiba Jieban Hutong) on the east side were officially formed.

Because South Main Street was the main road for transporting grain from the Grand Canal wharf outside the north gate to the two major granaries in the east and center of Tongzhou, it was very busy during the Ming and Qing dynasties and was filled with all kinds of shops. According to the "Essentials of Tong County Annals" from the 30th year of the Republic of China, there were eight major Hui Muslim surnames in Tongzhou: Jin, Ju, Bao, Wan, Du, Min, Kang, and Lan, with a population of seven hundred households.





This intersection is where the old Tongzhou South Gate used to be.





South Gate Main Street still keeps its historical width.



Street view of Tongzhou South Main Street.

Tongzhou South Main Street is full of halal snacks.





Crispy fried dough squares (gezhihe) are a specialty of eastern Beijing, and we have loved eating them since we were kids.























Guishunzhai

I wandered over to Guishunzhai to buy brown sugar sesame cakes (tanghuoshao). Guishunzhai was opened by Master Li Chen, the former deputy factory manager of the original Dashunzhai, after he retired. It keeps the old Dashunzhai techniques and is the most authentic halal pastry shop in Tongzhou. Their small round cakes (dun'er bobo) are also especially delicious.













Dashunzhai

The current state-run Dashunzhai food store still exists, with its main shop on Xinhua East Street, and it is also sold on Niujie and in major supermarkets.





Regarding Tongzhou Dashunzhai, Mr. Zhang Zhongxing once recalled it in his book "Fragments of Passing Years":

There was a halal pastry shop at Niushikou called Dashunzhai. They had two types of pastries, dun'er bobo and tanghuoshao, which, to use today's advertising language, were world-famous. Without bragging, they were at least famous far and wide. There is proof from travelers' ears: when I was a student, the long-distance bus would stop outside the South Gate of the new city, and a group of vendors would always surround it, shouting, "Dun'er bobo and tanghuoshao, from Dashunzhai!" encouraging passengers to buy them to take to other places. There is also proof from our own cravings; we really wanted to eat them often, but unfortunately, our pockets were empty, so we mostly just drooled and rarely got to eat them. More than half a century has passed, and the Dashunzhai brand still exists. I assume it changed from a small handicraft business to a large factory, and there are even many places in Beijing that sell their products on consignment. It is a pity that they stopped walking on two legs and now only walk on one, as they no longer produce dun'er bobo. As for the tanghuoshao, they have gone from exquisite to ordinary, so it does not really matter if you eat them or not.

Additionally, the famous Beijing scholar Wang Yongbin wrote about Liu Dashun, the founder of Dashunzhai, in his book "Beijing's Suburban Towns and Old Brands":

After Liu Dashun settled in Tongzhou, his whole family worked together to start their family pastry business. Liu Dashun bought the raw materials, his family made the pastries, and every morning he went to the fish market north of the lock bridge to sell them to vendors, while he sold the rest along the street in the afternoon. The tanghuoshao and savory sesame cakes (xianhuoshao) made by Liu Dashun were especially popular. He could sell as many as he made every day, and the tanghuoshao in particular were always in short supply.

The raw materials for making tanghuoshao include white flour, vegetable oil, brown sugar, sesame paste, osmanthus, and alkaline water. Liu Dashun was not afraid to spend more money to use good white flour, small-mill sesame oil, and good brown sugar. Moreover, the ingredients had to be added in specific proportions. The finished tanghuoshao had to be a deep brown color and have just the right sweetness. When placed on a porcelain plate, a layer of oil would soon float on the plate.

Eighteen and a Half Alleys (Shiba Jieban Hutong)

Turn off South Street into the last historic neighborhood of Tongzhou.























Tongzhou Mosque

Tongzhou Mosque was built during the Yanyou era of the Yuan Dynasty (1314–1320) and was originally named Chaozhen Mosque. It was renovated in 1516 (the 11th year of the Zhengde era of the Ming Dynasty) and expanded in 1593 (the 21st year of the Wanli era), when it was renamed the Mosque.

Tongzhou Mosque opened a charity school during the Daoguang era, a mosque university in 1933, and the Muguang Primary School in the 1940s, which was renamed Hui Muslims Primary School after 1949. In 1963, the movie "Fighting in the Ancient City in the Wildfire and Spring Breeze" was filmed here, at which time the mosque's layout was still complete.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the mosque was occupied by the Civil Affairs Bureau's welfare factory for the disabled and suffered severe damage. The archway, screen wall, hanging flower gate, minaret (bangkelou), side gate, the fourth section of the prayer hall, and the moon-viewing platform were all demolished. The south lecture hall and south water room were torn down to build a two-story red brick building, and machines were installed inside the prayer hall.

The factory moved out in 1982. The Beijing Ethnic Affairs Committee began repairs without reporting to the cultural relics department, building a gate that ruined the original style and tearing off the well-mouth ceiling to replace it with wax-paper decorations. The cultural relics department later discovered this and stopped it, preserving the original well-mouth antique paintings in the south porch of the third section.

In 1998, a replica ancient women's mosque was built in the south courtyard of the main courtyard, and the screen wall, hanging flower gate, and minaret were rebuilt in 2006.







The gate of Tongzhou Mosque in "Fighting in the Ancient City in the Wildfire and Spring Breeze".



The gate of Tongzhou Mosque in "Fighting in the Ancient City in the Wildfire and Spring Breeze".



The gate of Tongzhou Mosque in "Fighting in the Ancient City in the Wildfire and Spring Breeze".





















Here are some photos I recently took of Tongzhou Mosque.







This is a rare example of an early mosque building that uses the corbeling technique to construct a kiln-style dome; most kiln-style roofs after the Qing Dynasty were converted into wooden pavilion-style structures.





The brick carvings of Arabic calligraphy are beautiful and rare.





These early stone carvings have been preserved with great difficulty.





Xiaolou Restaurant

Xiaolou Restaurant is at the north entrance of Tongzhou South Street. It is likely the most famous halal restaurant in Tongzhou, best known for its braised catfish (shaonianyu) caught in the Grand Canal.

Xiaolou was originally named Yihexuan and was founded by the Li brothers in 1900. It started with one storefront for production and one for sales, with two connected sections. Because customers crowded the doors, the shop expanded to two storefronts and the dining area to six rooms, with an extra room built on the roof. Because it was smaller than the Qing'anlou Restaurant to the south, it was called Xiaolou (Small Building).

During the Republic of China era, the Li family created a famous dish called braised catfish. They took catfish from the canal, removed the head and tail, coated them in a thin layer of mung bean starch, fried them in pure sesame oil, and then braised them with seasonings, making them crispy on the outside and tender on the inside.

In 1921, taking advantage of the bankruptcy of Qing'anlou to the south, the Li family rebuilt the shop into a two-story building and named it Xiaolou. After the public-private partnership in 1956, the roof was renovated. Xiaolou was demolished in 1985, and the current Xiaolou Restaurant was built to the southeast of the original site.



Xiaolou Restaurant before its demolition in 1985.



Zhang Zhongxing wrote about Xiaolou Restaurant in "Fragments of Passing Years":

Besides the sugar-filled sesame cakes (tanghuoshao), there was another dish famous at least in the local area: Xiaolou's braised catfish, or braised catfish and beef pie. Xiaolou is the common name; the official name was Yihexuan. It was located east of the road at the south entrance of the cattle market. Because the shop had two floors, it was commonly called Xiaolou. The catfish came from the canal. After being braised, the meat was white and the outside was crispy, which was very delicious. Beef pie was a common food, but the ingredients and craftsmanship were refined. Back then, it was a treat that people loved but could not eat often. I must also mention a regret: in the 1960s and later, I ate both the beef pie and the braised catfish there. The fish changed from canal-caught to farm-raised, and perhaps the cooking skills changed too. In short, the color, aroma, and taste all declined significantly. The beef pancake (niurou bing) is the same, rough and not very tasty. In short, it is not what it used to be.

Mr. Wang Yongbin introduces the Xiaolou Restaurant in his book, Beijing's Suburbs and Old Brands.

Xiaolou is a halal restaurant serving everyday food, including rice, steamed buns (mantou), twisted rolls (huajuan), stir-fried lamb (pao yangrou), stir-fried trio (pao sanyang), beef stew (dun niurou), white lamb head meat (bai yangtou rou), lamb offal soup (yangzasui), fried meat strips (zha songrou), fried date and fruit rolls (zha zaojuanguo), roasted lamb (shao yangrou), hot pot lamb (shuan yangrou), braised catfish (shao nianyu), and beef pancakes. The braised catfish and beef pancakes are the most famous, especially the braised catfish, which is one of the Three Treasures of Tongzhou.

Catfish (nianyu) has a lot of meat and few bones, and it tastes great, especially when it is fresh. This type of catfish breeds in the North Canal of Tongzhou, and Xiaolou Restaurant buys live catfish from the fish market to keep in large basins for later use. When a customer orders braised catfish, they take it from the basin and cook it immediately to keep the dish fresh and tasty. The freshness of the catfish combined with the skill of the Xiaolou chefs ensures the fish is cleaned well, with the head and tail removed, using only the middle section. They coat the catfish in starch and fry it in a pan of sesame oil, turning it over and over to fry it three times. They pour out the oil, add a little water to the pan, then add chopped green onion, ginger, garlic, salt, and other seasonings to stew the fish briefly so it absorbs the flavor before placing it on a porcelain plate. They thicken the sauce and pour it over the catfish. The delicious braised catfish is ready. The braised catfish at Xiaolou Restaurant is golden on the outside, crispy on the outside and tender on the inside, with great shape, color, and taste, making it a signature dish in Tongzhou.

Although the beef pancake at Xiaolou Restaurant is not as famous as the catfish, it cannot be matched by other restaurants in Tongzhou. The beef pancake at Xiaolou Restaurant has a thin crust, a large filling, is cooked through with oil, and is served with high-quality rice vinegar, which really brings out the flavor. It is also cheap and very popular with regular customers.



Braised catfish today.





Cultural relics collected by Xiaolou Restaurant, the Old Hui Muslim (lao huihui) plaque and the water pitcher (tangping) plaque. view all

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Summary: Ottoman Architecture Guide: Istanbul — Early Mosques Before Mimar Sinan is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: I want to share some mid-15th to mid-16th century Ottoman buildings I visited in Istanbul. Let's see what Ottoman architecture looked like before Mimar Sinan became the royal architect. The account keeps its focus on Istanbul, Ottoman Architecture, Early Mosques while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

I want to share some mid-15th to mid-16th century Ottoman buildings I visited in Istanbul. Let's see what Ottoman architecture looked like before Mimar Sinan became the royal architect.

1. Grand Bazaar of Istanbul: 1455-56

The Grand Bazaar (Kapalıçarşı) was started by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror in 1455-56, just three years after he conquered Constantinople. The first part built was the Jewelry Bazaar (Cevâhir Bedestan). After it was finished in 1460-61, it was managed by the foundation (Waqf) of the Hagia Sophia Mosque. The Grand Bazaar kept expanding after that and finally reached its current size in the early 17th century.













2. Mahmut Pasha Bath: 1466

The Mahmut Pasha Bath (Mahmut Pasha Hamam) was built in 1466 by Mahmut Pasha, the Grand Vizier (Vezir-i A'zam) to Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror. It sits northeast of the Grand Bazaar and is part of the Mahmut Pasha complex.

Mahmut Pasha was a descendant of Byzantine Greek nobility. As a child, he was recruited into the Ottoman system through the Devshirme (child tax) or as a prisoner of war. He later entered the Ottoman court and became a skilled general. Mahmut Pasha performed well in the Ottoman wars to conquer the Balkans. He became the 13th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1456 and led the army that destroyed the Kingdom of Bosnia in 1463.

The Mahmut Pasha Bath originally had separate sections for men and women, but the women's section was torn down. Now, only the men's changing room with its 17-meter-wide dome remains, and there is a beautiful stalactite vault (Muqarnas) at the entrance. Past the changing room are two other domes, which are the warm room and the hot room.

The Mahmut Pasha Bath was once used as a warehouse, but now it is connected to the Grand Bazaar and serves as a shopping area.













3. Tiled Kiosk: 1472

The Museum of Islamic Art in Istanbul is part of the Istanbul Archaeology Museums. It is located inside the Tiled Kiosk in the outer gardens of the Ottoman Topkapi Palace. The Tiled Kiosk was built in 1472 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (Fatih Sultan Mehmed) as a pleasure pavilion in the palace gardens. The Tiled Kiosk opened as the Imperial Museum (Müze-i Hümayun) between 1875 and 1891. In 1953, it opened to the public again as the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Art. Later, it was merged into the Istanbul Archaeology Museums as their Islamic Art branch.

The building is cross-shaped. Because it was not influenced by Byzantine architecture, scholars think it might have been designed by an unknown Persian architect. The tiles on the building's exterior clearly show influence from Central Asian regions like Samarkand, while the bricks and polygonal columns are typical of Persian architecture.



















Some of the original interior decorations are still preserved in the Tiled Kiosk. The gold leaf on some tiles had faded, so parts of it have been re-gilded.

















The building houses a fountain built in 1590. The peacock design among tulips, carnations, and plum blossoms was a very popular theme during the reign of Ottoman Sultan Murad III (reigned 1574-1595).





4. Atik Ali Pasha Mosque: 1496

The Atik Ali Pasha Mosque (Gazi Atik Ali Paşa Camii) was built in 1496 by Atik Ali Pasha, the Grand Vizier to Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II. It is located south of the Grand Bazaar.

Atik Ali Pasha was originally a Bosnian from Sarajevo. He entered the Ottoman court as a white eunuch (Hadım). Because of his military achievements, he became a minister (Vezir) in 1496. In 1500, he led the army to defeat Venice and occupy the Peloponnese peninsula, and in 1501, he was promoted to the 22nd Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire.

When it was first built, the entire complex included a mosque, a madrasa (Islamic school), a soup kitchen, a caravanserai, and a Sufi lodge. Today, only the mosque and the madrasa remain. The mosque has had a difficult history. It was damaged by earthquakes four times—in 1648, 1716, 1766, and 1894—and was rebuilt many times. During the 1894 restoration, calligraphy by the Ottoman calligrapher Sami Efendi was placed at the entrance of the main hall.

This is a T-shaped mosque. It consists of a main dome directly above the hall and a semi-dome over the mihrab. There are two small domes on each side of the main dome, and the front porch has five small domes. Unfortunately, because of the many repairs after earthquakes, you can barely see the original 15th-century appearance inside the main hall.



















5. Bayezid II Bath: 1501-1507

The Bayezid II complex (Bayezid II Külliye) consists of a mosque, a madrasa, a bath, a tomb, shops, a caravanserai, and a kitchen. It was ordered by Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II (reigned 1481-1512) and built between 1501 and 1507. It is the second complex built by the Ottoman dynasty in Istanbul after the Fatih complex. Since the Fatih complex was rebuilt after being damaged by an earthquake in the 18th century, the Bayezid II complex is the oldest surviving Ottoman complex in Istanbul.

The Bayezid II Mosque reopened in 2020 after eight years of restoration. The madrasa has been closed for over a decade for repairs as a Museum of Calligraphy and has not opened yet. I hope I can visit both buildings on my next trip to Istanbul.

Luckily, the Bayezid II Hamam opened to the public as a museum in 2015 after restoration, so I was able to visit this 500-year-old Ottoman bathhouse.

The Bayezid II Hamam is so massive that it is commonly known as the Great Bath (Hamam-ı Kebir). This is a bathhouse with separate sections for men and women, so it has two main domes, each with a changing room (camekân), a warm room (ılıklık), and a hot room (hararet).

In 1730, the Albanian Janissaries led by Patrona Halil rose up and deposed Sultan Ahmed III. People say Patrona Halil once worked as an attendant at the Bayezid II Hamam. After the uprising failed, the Ottoman dynasty began to strictly manage bathhouses and restricted Albanians from working in Istanbul's bathhouses. From then on, bathhouse attendants in Istanbul mostly came from the Anatolia region, and this remains true today.















Mosque under renovation





6. Yavuz Selim Mosque: 1520-1527

The Yavuz Selim Mosque (Yavuz Selim Camii) was built in 1520 by the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent to honor his father, Sultan Selim I (reigned 1512-1520). It was completed in 1527 and is the third imperial mosque built by the Ottoman dynasty in Istanbul.

The Yavuz Selim Mosque sits on the summit of the fifth of Istanbul's seven hills, which is why the area is named Selim Hill. The structure of the mosque is similar to the Hagia Sophia, with a rectangular main hall topped by a shallow dome. The tiles at the entrance of the main hall use the traditional dry cord (Cuerda seca) technique. They are very similar to those in the Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odası) of the Ottoman Topkapi Palace, so we can conclude they were made by the same Iranian craftsmen who built the Ottoman palace.





























In the backyard of the Yavuz Selim Mosque is the Tomb of Selim I, built in 1523. Selim I was known as the Grim (Yavuz). During his reign, he greatly expanded the territory of the Ottoman dynasty. After conquering the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517, he gained control of the entire Levant, Hejaz, and Egypt, becoming the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques and shifting the focus of the Ottoman dynasty from the Balkans to the Middle East. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Southeast Asia — Sultanates, Trade and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the first article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and then visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Southeast Asian Islam, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In the first article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and then visited Tabriz in Iran.

In the second article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 2) — The Legacy of the Mongol Empire," we visited 12 countries ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the third part of our series, 'A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 3) — South Asia,' we explore the Islamic culture of South Asia. We travel from Delhi into Gujarat, central India, and the Deccan Plateau. We visit five sultanates on the plateau before boarding a ship to the Maldives to begin our journey across the Indian Ocean.

In this part, we will cross the Bay of Bengal and enter the Islamic world of Southeast Asia.

The Sultanate of Patani in Thailand (1457?) -1902)

The Sultanate of Patani is located on the border of modern-day Thailand and Malaysia. Its early history is unclear, but it likely converted to Islam in the mid-15th century. After the Portuguese conquered the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511, Patani became an important trading port. to a large number of Chinese merchants, hundreds of Portuguese traders settled here.

In 1550, the sultanate was ruled by Sultan Muzaffar Shah. According to the Patani history book 'Hikayat Patani,' the ancient Krue Se mosque in Patani was originally built by Sultan Muzaffar Shah.

Krue Se mosque photographed by Phoowadon Duangmee



The location of Patani



The legacy of the Malacca Sultanate.

Until the end of the 15th century, European spices were obtained through Venice. Venice got them from Arabs and Indians, who in turn got them from Malacca. This process was complex and tedious. Driven by a desire for spices, the King of Portugal ordered his explorers to bypass the Cape of Good Hope to break the trade chain and establish a direct trade route to the East.

In 1509, a Portuguese representative arrived in Malacca with a letter from the King, hoping to establish direct trade. However, because the Portuguese had previously led Catholics against 'infidels' in India, the powerful Indian Tamil Muslim faction in the Malacca court was very hostile toward them. The Sultanate of Malacca eventually decided to arrest the Portuguese representative. He escaped alone, but his companions were imprisoned.

In 1511, the Portuguese governor of India led 18 ships and 1,400 men to Malacca to negotiate the release of the prisoners with the Sultan. After three months of delays, the Portuguese successfully bribed the castle guards to open the main gate. The Portuguese army entered Malacca, and the last Sultan fled.

The Portuguese demolished the original palace, cemeteries, and mosques of the Malacca Sultanate to build the A Famosa fortress.





St. Paul's Church, built inside the fortress in 1521, is the oldest church building in Southeast Asia.



The location of Malacca



After the Portuguese conquered Malacca, the last Sultan, Mahmud Shah, retreated south to Bintan Island, south of Singapore. He established his capital at Tanjungpinang and continued to rule the Malays as Sultan. Between 1515 and 1519, the Sultan led several military campaigns to retake Malacca, but the Portuguese defeated him each time. In 1526, the Portuguese completely destroyed Tanjungpinang. Mahmud Shah fled to Kampar in Riau, where he died in 1528.

The location of Tanjungpinang



After Mahmud Shah died, his two sons established the Sultanate of Perak and the Sultanate of Johor. Along with the Sultanate of Pahang, which had been established earlier by another Malaccan prince, there were three sultanates on the Malay Peninsula ruled by Malaccan princes during this period.

1. The Sultanate of Perak, Malaysia (1528–present)

The Sultanate of Perak is located on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. It was founded by Muzaffar Shah I, the eldest son of the last Malaccan Sultan, Mahmud Shah. After his father died in 1528, his brother Alauddin established the Sultanate of Johor, while he traveled to Perak and became the Sultan of Perak.

In 1550, the Perak Sultanate was ruled by its second sultan, Mansur Shah I. He began taxing tin mines within Perak, which gradually made the sultanate wealthy. During his reign, the Perak Sultanate was defeated by Siam in the north, forced to pay annual tribute, and had to allow Siam to buy tin tax-free.

The location of Perak.



2. The Pahang Sultanate of Malaysia (1470–1623)

The Pahang Sultanate was a Malay state on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, founded by a prince from the Malacca Sultanate. The Pahang Sultanate became officially independent after the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate in 1511. In 1523, the Pahang Sultanate joined forces with the remnants of the Malacca Sultanate in the Johor region to defeat the Portuguese. In retaliation, the Portuguese destroyed all the ships of the Pahang Sultanate and killed over 600 people. In 1540, the Portuguese teamed up with the Pattani Sultanate to attack the Pahang Sultanate, killing the sultan himself.

In 1550, the Pahang Sultanate was ruled by Sultan Zainal Abidin Shah. That year, the three sultanates founded by Malacca princes—Pahang, Johor, and Perak—united to try and retake Malacca from the Portuguese. However, the Portuguese army used a diversionary strategy to harass the ports of Pahang, forcing the Pahang Sultanate's army to withdraw.

The location of Pahang.



3. The Johor Sultanate of Malaysia (1528–present)

After the last sultan of the Malacca Sultanate, Mahmud Shah, passed away, his second son, Alauddin Riayat, established the Johor Sultanate in the upper reaches of Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia. In 1535, the Portuguese twice led 400 soldiers to invade Johor. Alauddin led the Malays in a fierce counterattack, heavily damaging the Portuguese, and eventually signed a peace treaty with them.

After 1540, Alauddin moved the capital of the Johor Sultanate to the mouth of the Johor River, now known as Old Johor (Johor Lama). That same year, he sent troops to defeat the Aceh Sultanate, which had invaded the Aru Kingdom. This battle is hailed as the most glorious victory achieved by the Malays after the fall of the Malacca Sultanate.

The Old Johor Museum introduces this history of the Johor Sultanate; photo taken by Chongkian in 2016.



The location of Old Johor.





Sultanates of Indonesia.

1. The Aceh Sultanate of Indonesia (1496–1903)

The Aceh Sultanate was located in Aceh Province on the northern tip of Sumatra, Indonesia. In the 16th and 17th centuries, it was a major power in the Malay Archipelago, competing with the Johor Sultanate and the Portuguese for control of the Strait of Malacca. At the same time, the court of the Sultan of Aceh was a center for Islamic scholarship.

The Aceh Sultanate began expanding its control over northern Sumatra in the 1520s and started clashing with the Portuguese. In 1521, Sultan Ali led his army to defeat a Portuguese fleet of 200 men, capturing many European cannons. After this, the war between the Aceh Sultanate and the Portuguese continued unabated. Meanwhile, the Aceh Sultanate also took in many Malaccan nobles who had fled after the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate.

In 1550, the Aceh Sultanate was ruled by its third sultan, Alauddin al-Kahar, who is known as the most powerful warrior in the history of the Aceh Sultanate. Alauddin began conquering southern Sumatra in 1539 and killed the ruler of the Aru Kingdom, but he was pushed back by the Johor Sultanate in 1540. To compete with the Portuguese for control of the Strait of Malacca, Alauddin led an army in a night raid on Malacca in 1547, but he was ultimately defeated. After that, the Aceh Sultanate enjoyed 15 years of peace.

The tomb of Sultan Alauddin al-Kahar; photo taken by Si Gam in 2015.



The dark area shows the territory of the Aceh Sultanate in 1524, mapped by Gunawan Kartapranata in 2009.



The location of Banda Aceh.



2. The Banten Sultanate of Indonesia (1527–1813).

Banten is on the western tip of Java Island, separated from Sumatra by the Sunda Strait. In the early 16th century, it belonged to the Hindu Sunda Kingdom. The rise of the Cirebon and Demak sultanates on Java threatened the Sunda Kingdom, so the kingdom asked the Portuguese in Malacca for help. In 1522, the Portuguese formed an alliance with the Sunda Kingdom to control the local pepper trade.

However, after the alliance was formed, the Portuguese failed to send troops to help in time. The joint Cirebon-Demak army took the chance to capture the important Sunda Kingdom port of Sunda Kalapa and renamed it Jakarta. After that, the Sunda Kingdom fought the Cirebon-Demak army alone for five years. In 1527, the Cirebon Sultan Sunan Gunung Jati sent his son, Maulana Hasanuddin, to join the Demak Sultanate and capture the important port of Banten. Sunan Gunung Jati then named his son the Sultan of Banten.

Soon after becoming Sultan of Banten, Maulana Hasanuddin began building a new port city at the mouth of the Banten River. By the mid-16th century, Banten had become an important port that could rival Malacca. According to the Portuguese historian João de Barros, Banten was located in the middle of the harbor. A clear river ran through the city, allowing ships to sail into the town center. The city had a brick fortress with a two-story wooden defensive structure. There was a square in the city center used as a market in the morning and for military or artistic events at noon. On the south side of the square was the Sultan's palace, known as the Surosowan Palace, with a tall building next to it where the Sultan met his subjects. On the west side of the square was the Great Mosque, which is the current Great Mosque of Banten.

At that time, only local residents lived inside the city. Foreigners lived by the harbor north of the city, with foreign Muslims in the northeast and foreign non-Muslims in the northwest.

Only ruins remain of the Surosowan Palace built by Maulana Hasanuddin, which served as the residence for generations of Banten sultans. The palace was designed by a Dutchman, so it features the corner bastion structure of a Dutch fortress. The Surosowan Palace currently has two-meter-high walls made of red stone and coral. The most obvious ruin inside is the Sultan's princess's bathing pool, which is similar in structure to the existing pools in the Yogyakarta Sultan's Palace.













The tomb of Maulana Hasanuddin is right next to the Great Mosque of Banten.





Street view of Banten city.













The location of Banten city.





3. The Cirebon Sultanate of Indonesia (1447–1679).

The Cirebon Sultanate was located in western Java and was founded by Prince Cakrabuana of the Hindu Sunda Kingdom. Prince Cakrabuana's mother was a Muslim, and he converted to Islam. Later, the prince studied under a Sufi sheikh from Iran and, at the sheikh's request, established a new settlement called Cirebon.

In 1550, the ruler of the Cirebon Sultanate was Sunan Gunung Jati (reigned 1479–1568), one of the nine saints (Wali Sanga) of Javanese Islam. He was the nephew of the sultanate's founder, Prince Cakrabuana. There are many legends about Sunan Gunung Jati, but some contradict each other, suggesting these stories may combine the experiences of more than one historical figure.

According to legend, Sunan Gunung Jati went on Hajj at age 22 and studied in Mecca, Baghdad, Egypt, and Champa. After returning home to Java, he studied under another one of the nine saints, Sunan Ampel, and served in the court of the Demak Sultanate. After returning to Cirebon, he suggested to his uncle that they establish an Islamic school (pesantren).

After inheriting the throne, he wrote to his grandfather, the King of Sunda, to announce that he would stop paying tribute to the Sunda Kingdom and that it was now an independent sultanate. According to the 1515 book The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to China by Portuguese explorer Tomé Pires, the Cirebon Sultanate was already a mature Muslim nation by 1515. During the reign of Sunan Gunung Jati, Cirebon grew into a prosperous port city that attracted many Arab and Chinese merchants. This place was not only a trade hub but also a center for the Islamic faith.

The Great Mosque of Cirebon, built by Sunan Gunung Jati, photographed by Aris Riyanto in 2014.



The location of Cirebon.



4. The Demak Sultanate of Indonesia (1475–1568).

The Demak Sultanate was located on the north coast of central Java, a place that was once a port for the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Kingdom. After the 15th century, as the Majapahit Kingdom declined, many Muslim merchants from Arabia and India chose to settle on the north coast of Java. In 1475, a Majapahit prince who had converted to Islam began ruling Demak, and he declared himself Sultan after his father died in 1478.

After the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate in 1511, the Demak Sultanate launched attacks against the Portuguese and the Majapahit Kingdom to protect the spice trade. Although they were defeated at sea by the Portuguese, the Demak Sultanate crushed the Majapahit Kingdom on land, completely ending the once-powerful kingdom in 1527. At its peak, the Demak Sultanate controlled all the trade ports on the north coast of Java and gained control over the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra, making it a powerful maritime nation at the time.

In 1550, the ruler of the Demak Sultanate was Arya Penangsang, a brave but vicious Sultan who would not hesitate to use cruel methods to achieve his goals. The Sultan's teacher was Sunan Kudus, one of the nine Javanese Islamic saints (Wali Sanga), who helped the Sultan seize the throne in 1549.

A one-hour drive northeast from the city of Demak brings you to Kudus, an important holy city of Islam on Java. Kudus is the only city on Java with an Arabic name. 'Kudus' is actually the Arabic pronunciation of Jerusalem, 'al-Quds,' and it was named after Sunan Kudus, one of the nine Javanese Islamic saints (Wali Sanga). The tomb of Kudus is now an important religious site on Java, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque next to the tomb is world-famous for its unique minaret built in an early traditional Javanese style.

Kudus came from a family of religious scholars, and his father was the imam of the Great Mosque of Demak. Kudus served as an officer in four wars between the Demak Sultanate and the Majapahit Kingdom, but he spent most of his energy on spreading the faith. Kudus studied under Sunan Kalijaga, one of the nine Javanese Islamic saints (Wali Songo) and the founder of the Great Mosque of Demak. Like his teacher, Kudus was very tolerant of traditional Javanese culture. He once tied a cow, which Hindus consider sacred, inside the mosque to attract Hindus, and he forbade people from slaughtering cows. When building the mosque, Kudus also used Javanese Hindu architectural styles.

The Al-Aqsa Mosque of Kudus (Masjid Al Aqsa Menara Kudus) was built by Kudus in 1549 and is known for its unique traditional Javanese architectural style.

The mosque shares its name with the famous Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. People say while on his way to perform the Hajj, Kudus helped cure a plague in a city and refused the generous gifts offered by the locals, accepting only a stone from the holy land surrounding the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. After returning to Java, Kudus used the stone in this mosque.



During the 19th century.



During the early 20th century.



The architectural style of the Al-Aqsa Mosque of Kudus directly inherited Buddhist/Hindu architecture from the Majapahit era, featuring two types of characteristic gates: Candi Bentar and Kori Agung.

A Candi is a type of Hindu/Buddhist mosque architecture found on Java, Bali, and Lombok. Candi Bentar means 'split Candi,' which refers to a Candi that is split symmetrically down the middle to create a path. The split gate (candi bentar) does not actually have doors. It serves as a passage from the secular world into a sacred space, creating a sense of solemnity before you reach the main building.



The grand gate (kori agung), also known as the paduraksa gate in Hindu and Buddhist architecture, is the main entrance from the secular world into a sacred space. The grand gate (kori agung) comes from the ancient Hindu gopuram gate. It was widely used in Javanese Hindu and Buddhist temples after the 8th and 9th centuries. After the 15th century, Islamic sultanates adopted it for mosques, palaces, and tombs, though without the complex Hindu and Buddhist decorations.

The grand gate (kori agung) is actually a type of stepped temple (candi) in the Majapahit style. It is built from red brick and features beautiful patterns on its wooden door panels.



The main prayer hall of the mosque was rebuilt in modern times, but it still preserves two original grand gates (kori agung) inside.







The most famous structure at the Al-Aqsa Mosque is this minaret, which is the oldest in Java and the only one on the island from the 16th century. This tower is not a Persian-style spire at all. It is a traditional Javanese Majapahit-style tower, and a large drum (bedug) used for the call to prayer sits at the top. Today, drum towers (bale kulkul) of the same style still exist in Bali, where they are used to signal attacks, fires, or public events.



The ablution pool at the Al-Aqsa Mosque is also very unique. Every water tap has a traditional statue next to it. People say Sunan Kudus designed this during the early construction phase to attract local Hindus and Buddhists to come here to clean themselves.





Sunan Kudus passed away in 1550 and is buried in the backyard of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The holy tomb is also built in the traditional Majapahit architectural style.





The split gate (candi bentar) in the middle of the passage.



During the early 20th century.



Next is another grand gate (kori agung).



Then you enter the bathing area, where people clean their bodies to prepare for entering the holy tomb.





Passing through this split gate (candi bentar) leads you into the outer burial area.







Passing through this grand gate (kori agung) brings you to the actual holy tomb.







The Langgar Bubrah ruins are in a small alley south of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. They are an important witness to Java's transition from Hinduism to Islam in the 16th century.

People say Prince Pontjowati of the Majapahit Kingdom built Langgar Bubrah in 1533, and it was originally a Hindu temple. Later, Prince Pontjowati converted to Islam under Sunan Kudus and became his student, so the site was converted into a mosque.





Traditional Majapahit-style brick carvings.









The room once had a roof, but it did not survive. Now, only the stone column bases (umpak) that supported the roof remain. Next to the column bases is a Hindu linga, along with a stone used for grinding herbs.



Beside the ruins, there is also a Hindu stone carving of Shiva.





In the city of Demak, there is the tomb of Sunan Kalijaga, one of the nine saints (Wali Songo) of Javanese Islam, built in 1550. He played a major role in the spread of Islam in Java.

When Sunan Kalijaga performed missionary work (da'wah), he used local Javanese culture and art as a medium. He slowly integrated the faith into traditional Javanese customs, which was key to the formation of traditional Javanese Islamic culture.

During his missionary work, Sunan Kalijaga was skilled at using art forms like shadow puppetry (wayang), traditional gamelan music, and carving. He also promoted traditional Javanese Muslim clothing (baju takwa), the Sekaten festival, and the Grebeg Maulud parade.

Legend says Sunan Kalijaga lived to be 100 years old and did not pass away until 1550. During his life, he witnessed the fall of the Majapahit Kingdom and the establishment of the Demak, Cirebon, and Banten sultanates. He eventually passed away in Demak and was buried southeast of the city.

Today, the tomb of Sunan Kalijaga is one of the most important Islamic holy sites in Java, visited by hundreds of people every day.















I caught the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) at the Sunan Kalijaga tomb mosque and saw them use the traditional large drum (Bedug) for the call to prayer. After the Friday prayer, everyone received a popsicle and a snack, and everyone enjoyed them.











Next to the Sunan Kalijaga tomb is a large bazaar, where many stalls sell T-shirts and pictures featuring the face of the saint Sunan Kalijaga. I bought pictures of the nine saints (Wali Sanga) of Javanese Islam and the saint Sunan Kalijaga. Saint Sunan Kalijaga is the only one among the nine saints who wore traditional Javanese clothing, which shows how he used traditional Javanese culture as a way to spread the faith.









The locations of Demak and Kudus.





The four sultanates of the Spice Islands.

1. The Sultanate of Ternate in Indonesia (1486-1914).

The Sultanate of Ternate ruled parts of eastern Indonesia and the southern Philippines, making it the most powerful of the four sultanates in the Spice Islands. As the only place that produced cloves, Ternate controlled most of the spice trade in the Spice Islands.

Because of the reliance on the spice trade, Islam spread quickly to Ternate after Muslim merchants and Sufi sheikhs brought it to Java in the 15th century, and many people, including the royal family, converted to the faith. In 1486, the King of Ternate officially changed his title from Kolano to Sultan and established the Sultanate of Ternate.

After the Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511, the spice trade route that used to go through Malacca was temporarily cut off. In 1512, the Portuguese came to Ternate to control the spice trade, and the Sultan of Ternate also hoped to work with them, allowing them to build a fortress in 1522. The Portuguese soon began to control the sultanate, and the bad behavior of the Portuguese garrison and their efforts to spread Catholicism further strained their relationship with the Sultan. In 1535, the people of Ternate attacked a village that had converted to Catholicism, so the Portuguese deposed Sultan Tabariji and sent him to Goa, India, where he converted to Catholicism.

In 1550, Sultan Hairun was the ruler of the Ternate Sultanate. After the Portuguese deposed the old Sultan in 1535, they forcibly took Prince Hairun away to make him a puppet ruler, and Hairun's mother died after falling from a window while resisting them. Hairun was initially forced to live inside the Portuguese fortress, but he was later allowed to move around freely. Because the Portuguese wanted a more controllable Sultan, they decided to depose and exile Hairun to Goa, India, in 1544, while recalling the former Sultan Tabariji, who had already converted to Catholicism in Goa. However, Tabariji died on the way back, and Hairun returned to the throne in 1546.

The Portuguese spent years trying to get Hairun to convert, but their efforts proved useless. Still, to resist the other three sultanates in North Maluku, Hairun chose to keep working with the Portuguese. In 1550, the Sultanate of Jailolo angrily attacked a village that had recently converted to Catholicism. The Portuguese joined forces with the Sultanate of Ternate to conquer the Sultanate of Jailolo, which further increased the power of the Ternate Sultanate.

Residents of Ternate as depicted in the 1540 Portuguese work Códice Casanatense.



The Benteng Kota Janji, a castle built by the Portuguese on Ternate Island in 1522, which means Castle of Promise. This castle witnessed Sultan Hairun signing a treaty with the Portuguese, but it was also where Sultan Hairun was eventually assassinated by the Portuguese.

Photo by dangdude03.



The location of Ternate.





2. The Sultanate of Tidore in Indonesia (1450-1967).

Tidore Island, home to the Sultanate of Tidore, sits right next to Ternate Island. It was the main rival to the Sultanate of Ternate in the spice trade, and people say the very first cloves grew here. Like Ternate, Tidore converted to Islam in the late 15th century after being influenced by Arab Sufi sheikhs, which is when they officially established their sultanate.

When the Portuguese arrived in the Spice Islands in 1512, both the Sultanate of Tidore and the Sultanate of Ternate wanted to work with them. The Ternateans got there first and brought the Portuguese back to their country, so Tidore lost its chance to partner with them.

In 1521, the Sultanate of Tidore hosted Ferdinand Magellan’s Spanish fleet during their voyage around the world. To compete with the alliance between the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate, the Sultanate of Tidore gave the Magellan fleet a warm welcome and filled the Spanish ships with spices.

During the 1520s, the Sultanate of Tidore and the Sultanate of Ternate were constantly at war. The people of Tidore could not beat the Portuguese cannons, so they eventually had to sign a peace treaty.

In 1550, the Sultanate of Tidore was ruled by Sultan Mir. He took the throne in 1526, a time when Tidore was being invaded by the Portuguese, who even burned down the Sultan's palace. Finally, in 1527, the warm welcome Tidore had given Magellan’s fleet six years earlier paid off. A Spanish expedition arrived in Tidore after a three-year voyage. Although only one of the seven original ships remained, the alliance between Tidore and Spain was officially formed.

Because of threats from the Portuguese, the Spanish finally left Tidore in 1546, but the Spanish fort built on Tidore Island still stands today. In 1550, the joint forces of the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate conquered the Sultanate of Jailolo, which made them much stronger. They then pressured the Sultanate of Tidore and forced them to tear down the Spanish fort.

The location of Tidore





3. The Sultanate of Jailolo in Indonesia (late 15th century–1832)

The Sultanate of Jailolo was on the west coast of Halmahera Island, north of Ternate Island. It also rose to power because of the clove trade and officially became a sultanate after converting to Islam in the late 15th century.

In his 1515 book, The Suma Oriental: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, the Portuguese explorer Tomé Pires recorded that the Sultanate of Jailolo was often at war with the Sultanate of Ternate. Many cloves grew within the sultanate, and although the king was a Muslim, most of the people were not.

In 1550, the ruler of the sultanate was Katarabumi. He was a devout Muslim and the main force resisting the Portuguese at the time. He fiercely attacked the Sultanate of Ternate for its alliance with the Portuguese and invaded villages that had converted to Catholicism, which earned him a high reputation locally.

In 1550, the joint forces of the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate besieged Katarabumi’s fort. After running out of food and supplies, Katarabumi was forced to surrender and was removed from power, and the Sultanate of Jailolo became a vassal state of the Sultanate of Ternate.

The location of Jailolo



4. The Sultanate of Bacan (late 15th century–1965)

The Sultanate of Bacan was in the Bacan Islands, south of Ternate Island. It also rose to power because of the clove trade and officially became a sultanate after converting to Islam in the late 15th century.

When the Portuguese first entered the Spice Islands in 1512, the Sultanate of Bacan had more people and ships than the other three sultanates in the Spice Islands. Compared to the other three sultanates, Bacan produced very few cloves and relied mainly on trading forest products from the Papua region. In the 1520s, the Sultanate of Bacan was hostile toward the alliance between the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate. They tried to stay away from the Europeans, but the Portuguese eventually attacked their capital in 1534.

By the mid-16th century, the clove production of the Sultanate of Bacan had increased to match Ternate's. It became an important port of call for merchant ships and maintained friendly relations with the chiefs in Papua.

The location of Bacan



The Sultanate of Brunei in Brunei (1368–1888)

Brunei is located on the north coast of Borneo Island in Southeast Asia. It is made up mostly of Malay people and was part of the Hindu Majapahit Empire in the 14th century. In the 15th century, Indian and Arab merchants brought Islam through trade. Brunei then broke away from the Majapahit Empire, converted to Islam, and became the independent Sultanate of Brunei. From the 15th to the 17th century, the Sultanate of Brunei stretched from northern Borneo to the Sulu Archipelago in the southern Philippines, and even reached Manila in the northern Philippines. After the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate in 1511, many wealthy Malaccan nobles moved to Brunei, which further strengthened Brunei's power.

In 1521, Magellan's fleet arrived in Brunei. An Italian explorer on the fleet named Antonio Pigafetta left behind valuable records about the Sultanate of Brunei. He saw the main city of the Sultanate of Brunei at the time, Water Village (Kampong Ayer), and compared this city built entirely on water to the Venice of the East. In 1550, the seventh Sultan, Saiful Rijal, ruled Brunei.

Today, Water Village (Kampong Ayer) remains a water city.



The location of Brunei.



The Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines (1457–1915).

The Sultanate of Sulu is located at the intersection of today's Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Starting in the late 14th century, Sufi missionaries came to the Sulu Archipelago with Arab merchant caravans to spread the faith. In 1457, the Arab explorer Sharif ul-Hashim officially established the Sultanate of Sulu. He is recorded in his genealogy as a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

In 1550, the Sultanate of Sulu was a vassal of the Sultanate of Brunei. They would not become independent from the Sultanate of Brunei until after 1578.



The location of Sulu.



The Sultanate of Maguindanao in the Philippines (1520–1905).

The Sultanate of Maguindanao is located in the southern part of Mindanao Island in the Philippines. Its founder was Shariff Muhammed Kabungsuwan, who traveled from Johor on the Malay Peninsula to Maguindanao to preach. It is said he was a descendant of Imam Hasan.

In 1550, the second Sultan, Sharif Maka-alang, ruled the Sultanate of Maguindanao. The capital of the Sultanate of Maguindanao was Cotabato on Mindanao Island in the Philippines. The Maguindanao people living here are the sixth-largest ethnic group in the Philippines and are skilled at producing various metal tools.

The location of Maguindanao.



The online journey through 50 Muslim countries in 1550 ends here. Next time, I will choose another time period to continue this online travel. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic World in 1550: South Asia — Sultanates, Mughals and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the first article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and then visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on South Asian Islam, Mughal History, Islamic World while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In the first article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and then visited Tabriz in Iran.

In the second article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 2) — The Legacy of the Mongol Empire," we visited 12 countries ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the third article, we will experience the Islamic culture of South Asia, traveling from Delhi into Gujarat and central India, then moving to the Deccan Plateau to visit its five sultanates, and finally taking a boat to the Maldives to begin our Indian Ocean journey.

For North India, 1550 is a special point in time. The Mughal Empire and the Bengal Sultanate we are familiar with have disappeared from the map, replaced by the Sur Dynasty, an Afghan Pashtun state stretching from Pakistan and North India through Bengal to the Rakhine State in Myanmar.

The Sur Dynasty (1538-1556) that swept across North India.

The founder of the Sur Dynasty, Sher Shah Suri, came from the Afghan Pashtun Sur tribe and was originally a general in the Mughal Empire. In 1539, the Mughal Emperor Humayun led a large army to conquer Bengal, but he was defeated by Sher Shah. In 1540, Sher Shah followed up his victory and completely crushed Humayun. Humayun fled to Persia, and Sher Shah established the Suri Dynasty in Delhi.

After occupying Delhi, Sher Shah continued building Din Panah, the Mughal capital Humayun had started for himself in 1533, and renamed it Shergarh.

In 1550, the Suri Dynasty was ruled by Sher Shah's son, Islam Shah Suri. He continued his father's policy of strengthening central authority, defeated the counterattack by the Mughal Emperor Humayun, and maintained the Suri Dynasty's rule in North India.

The location of Shergarh city.





The walls of Shergarh are 18 meters high and 1.5 kilometers long, with three city gates. The west gate is the main entrance to the fortress and the tourist area, called Bara Darwaza. The south gate is called Humayun Darwaza. One theory is that Humayun built this gate, while another is that it faces Humayun's Tomb. The north gate is called Talaqi Darwaza, also known as the Forbidden Gate.

All three gates are double-layered sandstone structures with two huge semi-circular towers on either side. The gates have overhanging balconies and small pavilions (chhatris) on top, an architectural style that would be used repeatedly in later Mughal architecture.









The Qila-i-Kuna mosque was built by Sher Shah in 1541 and served as the royal mosque of the Suri Dynasty. This semi-domed mosque is considered an important landmark in the transition of Indian Islamic architecture from the Lodi style to the Mughal style, and it is the largest and most exquisite of the five-arched mosques in India.

The five-arched mosque is an architectural style that developed during the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate. The main hall of the mosque is divided into five sections by five arches, and each section has a mihrab. The mihrab inside the central arch is the largest, topped by a Lodi-style semi-circular dome.



























Sher Mandal is an octagonal pavilion with a very simple style. This beauty of simplicity comes from a return to Persian style, which is quite different from the architectural forms of the late Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, and it is the earliest building of this style in Delhi.







Although it looks like an early Mughal building, it is actually recognized as part of the palace built by Sher Shah, which was later converted by Humayun into a library and observatory. It is also known as the first observatory in Delhi.





Salimgarh Fort is located on the north side of the Red Fort in Delhi and was built in 1546 by Salim Shah, the son of the Suri Dynasty ruler Sher Shah. People say before Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555, he stayed here for three days.

Salimgarh Fort has many ghost stories, the most famous being that of Zebunnisa, the daughter of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Legend says she wore a black veil and sang poems she had written herself under the moonlight. Additionally, some people claim to hear the groans of Indian National Army soldiers who were tortured to death here at night.

In 2007, this site became a UNESCO World Heritage site.







Isa Khan was a nobleman of the Sur Empire, coming from the Niazi tribe of the Pashtuns in Afghanistan. Isa Khan died in 1548. Before he passed away, he built his own tomb and mosque in the southern suburbs of Dinpanah, near the shrine of Nizamuddin. Later, this area also became the site of Humayun's tomb. As a prominent figure in the Sur Empire, Isa Khan was one of the last nobles of the dynasty to be buried in an Afghan-style tomb.

On August 5, 2011, the oldest sunken garden in India was discovered during the restoration of the tomb. This is considered the first Indian-style sunken garden attached to a tomb in India, a design that was later further developed at the tomb of Akbar and the Taj Mahal.















The Isa Khan Mosque was built during the same period as the tomb, and its biggest feature is the use of two pavilions instead of a dome. many details in the mosque were further developed in the later Humayun's Tomb.













Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

We head south from Delhi to Gujarat to look at the state that became independent from the Delhi Sultanate.

1. The Gujarat Sultanate in Western India (1407–1573)

The Gujarat Sultanate was located in the state of Gujarat in western India. Its founder was originally the governor (Nawab) of the Delhi Sultanate in Gujarat, and he became officially independent after Timur invaded the Delhi Sultanate.

In the first half of the 16th century, the Gujarat Sultanate was invaded twice by the Rajputs and the Mughal Empire, but they were eventually driven away. In 1550, the Gujarat Sultanate was ruled by Sultan Mahmud Shah III (reigned 1537–1554).

The Gujarat Sultanate is famous for its elegant Indo-Islamic architecture. They built many unique mosques in their capital, Ahmedabad, which had a great influence on the later development of Mughal architecture. In 2016, the Historic City of Ahmedabad was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The location of Ahmedabad city.



The Rani Sipri Mosque in Ahmedabad, built in 1514, has intricate carvings on its walls.

Photographed in 1874 by the Indian photography studio Bourne & Shepherd.



2. The Khandesh Sultanate in Central India (1382–1601)

The Khandesh Sultanate was located in the Khandesh region of central India. Its founder was originally a nobleman of the Delhi Sultanate who became a general due to his military achievements, and he became an independent sultanate in the late 14th century.

In the early 16th century, the Khandesh Sultanate was caught in wars with the neighboring Gujarat Sultanate and Malwa Sultanate.

The capital of the Khandesh Sultanate was Burhanpur, located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.



Five Deccan Sultanates

Let us continue south into the Deccan Plateau.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the most powerful state on the Deccan Plateau was the Bahmani Sultanate, which was formed after the Delhi Sultanate's governor in the Deccan region became independent. At the end of the 15th century, the Bahmani Sultanate declined and split into five sultanates, collectively known to later generations as the five Deccan Sultanates.

1. The Berar Sultanate on the Deccan Plateau (1490–1572)

The Berar Sultanate was the first of the five Deccan Sultanates to become independent after the collapse of the Bahmani Sultanate. Its founder was originally a Hindu who converted to Islam after being captured by the Bahmani army.

In 1550, the sultanate was ruled by Darya Imad Shah, who tried to use diplomacy for peaceful rule, which kept the sultanate relatively stable during this period. At the same time, he also built the city of Daryapur and named it after himself.

The location of Daryapur city.



2. The Ahmadnagar Sultanate on the Deccan Plateau (1490–1636)

The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was one of the five Deccan sultanates formed after the Bahmani Sultanate broke apart. It sat southeast of the Gujarat Sultanate, with Ahmadnagar as its capital. Its founder was originally a Brahmin from the Vijayanagara Empire in South India who later converted to Islam.

In 1550, the sultanate was ruled by Burhan Nizam Shah I. He was the first to switch from Sunni to Shia Islam, and the nobles and commoners soon followed his lead. Under his rule, there was religious tolerance, art flourished, and trade went smoothly, though small-scale conflicts with the Mughals and other sultanates continued.

Ahmadnagar city is in the state of Maharashtra in western India. It is a small town now, but it still keeps dozens of architectural ruins from the sultanate era.

The location of Ahmadnagar city.



3. The Golconda Sultanate on the Deccan Plateau (1518–1687)

We head southeast to Hyderabad, the most famous city on the Deccan Plateau.

The founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, Quli Qutb Mulk (reigned 1512–1543), was a Turkmen from Hamadan, Iran. He was a descendant of Qara Yusuf, the ruler of the Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep) dynasty. In the early 16th century, Quli traveled from Iran to India with some relatives and friends. They stayed in Delhi at first, then moved south to the Deccan to serve the Bahmani Sultanate. After the Bahmani Sultanate fell in the 15th century, Quli conquered Golconda Fort and started the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Over the next 60 years, three sultans expanded Golconda Fort into a massive complex, which is why the Qutb Shahi dynasty is also called the Golconda Sultanate.

Golconda had the world's only diamond mines at the time and was a major diamond trading hub. In the West, the name Golconda became a synonym for immense wealth. Golconda Fort is actually made of four castles. Its outer wall is 10 kilometers long and features 87 semicircular bastions, 8 gates, and 4 drawbridges. The inner city sits on a 120-meter-high granite hill. Currently, only the east gate, Bala Hissar Darwaza, is open for visitors. Bala Hissar Darwaza is a huge archway with carvings of lions and peacocks, which are common in Hindu architecture. The gate also has iron spikes designed to stop Mughal war elephants.





















The tall, three-story building south of the gate is called the Aslah Khana armory. It held guns and ammunition during the Mughal era. Historians have found that during the Qutb Shahi dynasty, this was actually an office for various officials.



Nakkar Khana is a palace complex where archaeologists have now dug up a series of water channels.



Taramati mosque, built in 1518, sits next to the palace area and was used by the sultan's court and nobles. This mosque has the classic Muslim architectural style of the Deccan region, with small lotus-topped onion domes on its balconies.





Walking further in, you reach the Bhagamati Palace.







Passing through Bhagamati Palace brings you to the Rani Mahal area in the south of the fort, where a light and sound show is held at night. In the middle of the spacious courtyard is a complex metal fountain. During the Qutb Shahi era, the fountain could spray water on its own thanks to hydraulic engineering. When there was no rain, the fort's water system ran using Persian water wheels. Today, a set of clay drainage pipes that have survived for hundreds of years can still be found behind the Rani Mahal. Historians believe the palace now called Rani Mahal should actually be called Dad Mahal. This was the palace where the sultan handled state affairs and listened to the opinions of his subjects and the people.









Behind the Rani Mahal is the Kilwat, the sultan's private bedroom. It is small but decorated beautifully. Those hollow lattices were once inlaid with Golconda's most famous diamonds and other gemstones.





Heading west from the Rani Mahal area, you leave the palace grounds and can see the tall, multiple walls inside the fort. Behind one of these walls stands a mosque called Zanana, which still has its mihrab and courtyard.













After passing through the Zanana mosque, you leave the palace area. A stone staircase leads to the fortress at the top of the hill. Some of the fortress walls are built directly onto giant boulders, and you can look down over the entire palace area from the steps. Once you reach the top, there is a building called Baradari (Darbar Hall), where you can look out over the vast area behind the fort.









Continuing down the hill, you will pass the Ramdas prison.





Next to the main gate of the fort is a Turkish bath (hammam) building. It has pipes at different heights inside to mix scented cold and hot water, but it was not open when I visited. Historians still disagree on whether this bath was for women or for washing the bodies of the deceased.





Two large pavilions outside the fort gate.







The Qutb Shahi tombs are located north of Golconda Fort and contain the tombs of the sultans of the Qutb Shahi dynasty along with their attached mosques. These tombs feature the typical style of Deccan Plateau Muslim architecture. The square base and round top are highlighted by decorative small towers, and the onion-shaped dome sits on a lotus-petal base, showing a blend of Persian and Indian architectural styles.

The tomb of Quli Qutb Mulk (reigned 1512–1543), the founder of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, is the oldest in the cemetery, and the designs of later tombs were all developed from this one. Quli was a Turkmen from Hamadan, Iran, and a descendant of Qara Yusuf (reigned 1380–1420), the ruler of the Black Sheep dynasty.











The tomb of the second sultan, Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah (reigned 1543–1550), is the only sultan's tomb in the cemetery that does not use black basalt. Its design is also different from the others, consisting of two levels. Jamsheed took the throne in 1543 after assassinating his father. Few records remain of his reign, other than that it was very cruel. Jamsheed died of illness in 1550 and was buried next to his father's tomb.







After the second sultan, Jamsheed, died of illness in 1550, his 7-year-old son, Subhan Quli Qutb Shah, took the throne. However, shortly after, Subhan's uncle, Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah, rushed back to Golconda Fort to seize the throne. Subhan was deposed and died shortly after. Subhan's tomb is on the same platform as his grandfather, the first sultan Quli Qutb Mulk, and it is the smallest of all the sultan tombs.





4. The Bidar Sultanate of the Deccan Plateau (1492–1619)

The Bidar Sultanate was one of the five Deccan sultanates formed after the collapse of the Bahmani Sultanate. It was the smallest one and was surrounded by the other four. Its founder was originally a Georgian enslaved by the Turks who later became a general in the Bahmani Sultanate.

In 1550, the ruler of the sultanate was Ali Barid Shah I, who loved inviting scholars and craftsmen from all over India to his court.

The Bidar Sultanate expanded Bidar Fort on a large scale. Because they hired Hindu architects, the buildings from this period incorporate many features of Hindu architecture.

A miniature painting of Ali Barid Shah in the collection of the San Diego Museum of Art.



A photo of the tomb of Ali Barid Shah taken by S N Barid in 2015.





5. The Bijapur Sultanate on the Deccan Plateau (1490–1686)

The Bijapur Sultanate was the most southwestern of the five major Deccan sultanates. Its founder was a Georgian slave bought from Iran by the Bahmani Sultanate.

In 1550, the ruler of the sultanate was Ibrahim Adil Shah I, the first Bijapur sultan to hold the title of Shah. After taking the throne, Ibrahim converted from Shia to Sunni. He removed the names of the Twelve Imams from the Friday khutbah, promoted local Deccan Sunni Muslims, and suppressed the Shia faction.

During his reign, Ibrahim constantly formed and broke alliances with the other four Deccan sultanates. Although there were continuous military campaigns, there was little territorial expansion.

During the rule of the Bijapur Sultanate, the city of Bijapur was a center for business, trade, and education on the Deccan Plateau, famous for its unique Bijapur culture.

The location of Bijapur city.



The Sultanate of the Maldives (1153-1968) in the Indian Ocean.

Let us leave the South Asian mainland and take a boat to the Maldives islands in the Indian Ocean.

As Arab merchants grew trade in the Indian Ocean, the Maldives changed from a Buddhist kingdom to an Islamic nation in the 12th century, becoming the Sultanate of the Maldives.

In 1550, the Sultanate of the Maldives was ruled by the Hilaalee dynasty, whose founder likely came from Somalia. In 1551, Sultan Muhammad III, who had only been in power for two years, was assassinated by his brother Hassan. Hassan was also the first Maldivian Sultan to convert to Christianity, but he was soon deposed.

Male, the capital of the Sultanate of the Maldives.





In the next part, we will cross the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia to see the Islamic culture there in 1550. view all