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Summary: Islamic World in 1550: Southeast Asia — Sultanates, Trade and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the first article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and then visited Tabriz in Iran. The account keeps its focus on Southeast Asian Islam, Islamic World, Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In the first article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 1)," we crossed the African continent, traveled from Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, and then visited Tabriz in Iran.

In the second article, "A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 2) — The Legacy of the Mongol Empire," we visited 12 countries ruled by descendants of Genghis Khan, moving from Eastern Europe into North and Central Asia, and finally into South Asia.

In the third part of our series, 'A Journey Through the Islamic World in 1550 (Part 3) — South Asia,' we explore the Islamic culture of South Asia. We travel from Delhi into Gujarat, central India, and the Deccan Plateau. We visit five sultanates on the plateau before boarding a ship to the Maldives to begin our journey across the Indian Ocean.

In this part, we will cross the Bay of Bengal and enter the Islamic world of Southeast Asia.

The Sultanate of Patani in Thailand (1457?) -1902)

The Sultanate of Patani is located on the border of modern-day Thailand and Malaysia. Its early history is unclear, but it likely converted to Islam in the mid-15th century. After the Portuguese conquered the Sultanate of Malacca in 1511, Patani became an important trading port. to a large number of Chinese merchants, hundreds of Portuguese traders settled here.

In 1550, the sultanate was ruled by Sultan Muzaffar Shah. According to the Patani history book 'Hikayat Patani,' the ancient Krue Se mosque in Patani was originally built by Sultan Muzaffar Shah.

Krue Se mosque photographed by Phoowadon Duangmee



The location of Patani



The legacy of the Malacca Sultanate.

Until the end of the 15th century, European spices were obtained through Venice. Venice got them from Arabs and Indians, who in turn got them from Malacca. This process was complex and tedious. Driven by a desire for spices, the King of Portugal ordered his explorers to bypass the Cape of Good Hope to break the trade chain and establish a direct trade route to the East.

In 1509, a Portuguese representative arrived in Malacca with a letter from the King, hoping to establish direct trade. However, because the Portuguese had previously led Catholics against 'infidels' in India, the powerful Indian Tamil Muslim faction in the Malacca court was very hostile toward them. The Sultanate of Malacca eventually decided to arrest the Portuguese representative. He escaped alone, but his companions were imprisoned.

In 1511, the Portuguese governor of India led 18 ships and 1,400 men to Malacca to negotiate the release of the prisoners with the Sultan. After three months of delays, the Portuguese successfully bribed the castle guards to open the main gate. The Portuguese army entered Malacca, and the last Sultan fled.

The Portuguese demolished the original palace, cemeteries, and mosques of the Malacca Sultanate to build the A Famosa fortress.





St. Paul's Church, built inside the fortress in 1521, is the oldest church building in Southeast Asia.



The location of Malacca



After the Portuguese conquered Malacca, the last Sultan, Mahmud Shah, retreated south to Bintan Island, south of Singapore. He established his capital at Tanjungpinang and continued to rule the Malays as Sultan. Between 1515 and 1519, the Sultan led several military campaigns to retake Malacca, but the Portuguese defeated him each time. In 1526, the Portuguese completely destroyed Tanjungpinang. Mahmud Shah fled to Kampar in Riau, where he died in 1528.

The location of Tanjungpinang



After Mahmud Shah died, his two sons established the Sultanate of Perak and the Sultanate of Johor. Along with the Sultanate of Pahang, which had been established earlier by another Malaccan prince, there were three sultanates on the Malay Peninsula ruled by Malaccan princes during this period.

1. The Sultanate of Perak, Malaysia (1528–present)

The Sultanate of Perak is located on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. It was founded by Muzaffar Shah I, the eldest son of the last Malaccan Sultan, Mahmud Shah. After his father died in 1528, his brother Alauddin established the Sultanate of Johor, while he traveled to Perak and became the Sultan of Perak.

In 1550, the Perak Sultanate was ruled by its second sultan, Mansur Shah I. He began taxing tin mines within Perak, which gradually made the sultanate wealthy. During his reign, the Perak Sultanate was defeated by Siam in the north, forced to pay annual tribute, and had to allow Siam to buy tin tax-free.

The location of Perak.



2. The Pahang Sultanate of Malaysia (1470–1623)

The Pahang Sultanate was a Malay state on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, founded by a prince from the Malacca Sultanate. The Pahang Sultanate became officially independent after the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate in 1511. In 1523, the Pahang Sultanate joined forces with the remnants of the Malacca Sultanate in the Johor region to defeat the Portuguese. In retaliation, the Portuguese destroyed all the ships of the Pahang Sultanate and killed over 600 people. In 1540, the Portuguese teamed up with the Pattani Sultanate to attack the Pahang Sultanate, killing the sultan himself.

In 1550, the Pahang Sultanate was ruled by Sultan Zainal Abidin Shah. That year, the three sultanates founded by Malacca princes—Pahang, Johor, and Perak—united to try and retake Malacca from the Portuguese. However, the Portuguese army used a diversionary strategy to harass the ports of Pahang, forcing the Pahang Sultanate's army to withdraw.

The location of Pahang.



3. The Johor Sultanate of Malaysia (1528–present)

After the last sultan of the Malacca Sultanate, Mahmud Shah, passed away, his second son, Alauddin Riayat, established the Johor Sultanate in the upper reaches of Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia. In 1535, the Portuguese twice led 400 soldiers to invade Johor. Alauddin led the Malays in a fierce counterattack, heavily damaging the Portuguese, and eventually signed a peace treaty with them.

After 1540, Alauddin moved the capital of the Johor Sultanate to the mouth of the Johor River, now known as Old Johor (Johor Lama). That same year, he sent troops to defeat the Aceh Sultanate, which had invaded the Aru Kingdom. This battle is hailed as the most glorious victory achieved by the Malays after the fall of the Malacca Sultanate.

The Old Johor Museum introduces this history of the Johor Sultanate; photo taken by Chongkian in 2016.



The location of Old Johor.





Sultanates of Indonesia.

1. The Aceh Sultanate of Indonesia (1496–1903)

The Aceh Sultanate was located in Aceh Province on the northern tip of Sumatra, Indonesia. In the 16th and 17th centuries, it was a major power in the Malay Archipelago, competing with the Johor Sultanate and the Portuguese for control of the Strait of Malacca. At the same time, the court of the Sultan of Aceh was a center for Islamic scholarship.

The Aceh Sultanate began expanding its control over northern Sumatra in the 1520s and started clashing with the Portuguese. In 1521, Sultan Ali led his army to defeat a Portuguese fleet of 200 men, capturing many European cannons. After this, the war between the Aceh Sultanate and the Portuguese continued unabated. Meanwhile, the Aceh Sultanate also took in many Malaccan nobles who had fled after the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate.

In 1550, the Aceh Sultanate was ruled by its third sultan, Alauddin al-Kahar, who is known as the most powerful warrior in the history of the Aceh Sultanate. Alauddin began conquering southern Sumatra in 1539 and killed the ruler of the Aru Kingdom, but he was pushed back by the Johor Sultanate in 1540. To compete with the Portuguese for control of the Strait of Malacca, Alauddin led an army in a night raid on Malacca in 1547, but he was ultimately defeated. After that, the Aceh Sultanate enjoyed 15 years of peace.

The tomb of Sultan Alauddin al-Kahar; photo taken by Si Gam in 2015.



The dark area shows the territory of the Aceh Sultanate in 1524, mapped by Gunawan Kartapranata in 2009.



The location of Banda Aceh.



2. The Banten Sultanate of Indonesia (1527–1813).

Banten is on the western tip of Java Island, separated from Sumatra by the Sunda Strait. In the early 16th century, it belonged to the Hindu Sunda Kingdom. The rise of the Cirebon and Demak sultanates on Java threatened the Sunda Kingdom, so the kingdom asked the Portuguese in Malacca for help. In 1522, the Portuguese formed an alliance with the Sunda Kingdom to control the local pepper trade.

However, after the alliance was formed, the Portuguese failed to send troops to help in time. The joint Cirebon-Demak army took the chance to capture the important Sunda Kingdom port of Sunda Kalapa and renamed it Jakarta. After that, the Sunda Kingdom fought the Cirebon-Demak army alone for five years. In 1527, the Cirebon Sultan Sunan Gunung Jati sent his son, Maulana Hasanuddin, to join the Demak Sultanate and capture the important port of Banten. Sunan Gunung Jati then named his son the Sultan of Banten.

Soon after becoming Sultan of Banten, Maulana Hasanuddin began building a new port city at the mouth of the Banten River. By the mid-16th century, Banten had become an important port that could rival Malacca. According to the Portuguese historian João de Barros, Banten was located in the middle of the harbor. A clear river ran through the city, allowing ships to sail into the town center. The city had a brick fortress with a two-story wooden defensive structure. There was a square in the city center used as a market in the morning and for military or artistic events at noon. On the south side of the square was the Sultan's palace, known as the Surosowan Palace, with a tall building next to it where the Sultan met his subjects. On the west side of the square was the Great Mosque, which is the current Great Mosque of Banten.

At that time, only local residents lived inside the city. Foreigners lived by the harbor north of the city, with foreign Muslims in the northeast and foreign non-Muslims in the northwest.

Only ruins remain of the Surosowan Palace built by Maulana Hasanuddin, which served as the residence for generations of Banten sultans. The palace was designed by a Dutchman, so it features the corner bastion structure of a Dutch fortress. The Surosowan Palace currently has two-meter-high walls made of red stone and coral. The most obvious ruin inside is the Sultan's princess's bathing pool, which is similar in structure to the existing pools in the Yogyakarta Sultan's Palace.













The tomb of Maulana Hasanuddin is right next to the Great Mosque of Banten.





Street view of Banten city.













The location of Banten city.





3. The Cirebon Sultanate of Indonesia (1447–1679).

The Cirebon Sultanate was located in western Java and was founded by Prince Cakrabuana of the Hindu Sunda Kingdom. Prince Cakrabuana's mother was a Muslim, and he converted to Islam. Later, the prince studied under a Sufi sheikh from Iran and, at the sheikh's request, established a new settlement called Cirebon.

In 1550, the ruler of the Cirebon Sultanate was Sunan Gunung Jati (reigned 1479–1568), one of the nine saints (Wali Sanga) of Javanese Islam. He was the nephew of the sultanate's founder, Prince Cakrabuana. There are many legends about Sunan Gunung Jati, but some contradict each other, suggesting these stories may combine the experiences of more than one historical figure.

According to legend, Sunan Gunung Jati went on Hajj at age 22 and studied in Mecca, Baghdad, Egypt, and Champa. After returning home to Java, he studied under another one of the nine saints, Sunan Ampel, and served in the court of the Demak Sultanate. After returning to Cirebon, he suggested to his uncle that they establish an Islamic school (pesantren).

After inheriting the throne, he wrote to his grandfather, the King of Sunda, to announce that he would stop paying tribute to the Sunda Kingdom and that it was now an independent sultanate. According to the 1515 book The Suma Oriental of Tomé Pires: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to China by Portuguese explorer Tomé Pires, the Cirebon Sultanate was already a mature Muslim nation by 1515. During the reign of Sunan Gunung Jati, Cirebon grew into a prosperous port city that attracted many Arab and Chinese merchants. This place was not only a trade hub but also a center for the Islamic faith.

The Great Mosque of Cirebon, built by Sunan Gunung Jati, photographed by Aris Riyanto in 2014.



The location of Cirebon.



4. The Demak Sultanate of Indonesia (1475–1568).

The Demak Sultanate was located on the north coast of central Java, a place that was once a port for the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Kingdom. After the 15th century, as the Majapahit Kingdom declined, many Muslim merchants from Arabia and India chose to settle on the north coast of Java. In 1475, a Majapahit prince who had converted to Islam began ruling Demak, and he declared himself Sultan after his father died in 1478.

After the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate in 1511, the Demak Sultanate launched attacks against the Portuguese and the Majapahit Kingdom to protect the spice trade. Although they were defeated at sea by the Portuguese, the Demak Sultanate crushed the Majapahit Kingdom on land, completely ending the once-powerful kingdom in 1527. At its peak, the Demak Sultanate controlled all the trade ports on the north coast of Java and gained control over the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra, making it a powerful maritime nation at the time.

In 1550, the ruler of the Demak Sultanate was Arya Penangsang, a brave but vicious Sultan who would not hesitate to use cruel methods to achieve his goals. The Sultan's teacher was Sunan Kudus, one of the nine Javanese Islamic saints (Wali Sanga), who helped the Sultan seize the throne in 1549.

A one-hour drive northeast from the city of Demak brings you to Kudus, an important holy city of Islam on Java. Kudus is the only city on Java with an Arabic name. 'Kudus' is actually the Arabic pronunciation of Jerusalem, 'al-Quds,' and it was named after Sunan Kudus, one of the nine Javanese Islamic saints (Wali Sanga). The tomb of Kudus is now an important religious site on Java, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque next to the tomb is world-famous for its unique minaret built in an early traditional Javanese style.

Kudus came from a family of religious scholars, and his father was the imam of the Great Mosque of Demak. Kudus served as an officer in four wars between the Demak Sultanate and the Majapahit Kingdom, but he spent most of his energy on spreading the faith. Kudus studied under Sunan Kalijaga, one of the nine Javanese Islamic saints (Wali Songo) and the founder of the Great Mosque of Demak. Like his teacher, Kudus was very tolerant of traditional Javanese culture. He once tied a cow, which Hindus consider sacred, inside the mosque to attract Hindus, and he forbade people from slaughtering cows. When building the mosque, Kudus also used Javanese Hindu architectural styles.

The Al-Aqsa Mosque of Kudus (Masjid Al Aqsa Menara Kudus) was built by Kudus in 1549 and is known for its unique traditional Javanese architectural style.

The mosque shares its name with the famous Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. People say while on his way to perform the Hajj, Kudus helped cure a plague in a city and refused the generous gifts offered by the locals, accepting only a stone from the holy land surrounding the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. After returning to Java, Kudus used the stone in this mosque.



During the 19th century.



During the early 20th century.



The architectural style of the Al-Aqsa Mosque of Kudus directly inherited Buddhist/Hindu architecture from the Majapahit era, featuring two types of characteristic gates: Candi Bentar and Kori Agung.

A Candi is a type of Hindu/Buddhist mosque architecture found on Java, Bali, and Lombok. Candi Bentar means 'split Candi,' which refers to a Candi that is split symmetrically down the middle to create a path. The split gate (candi bentar) does not actually have doors. It serves as a passage from the secular world into a sacred space, creating a sense of solemnity before you reach the main building.



The grand gate (kori agung), also known as the paduraksa gate in Hindu and Buddhist architecture, is the main entrance from the secular world into a sacred space. The grand gate (kori agung) comes from the ancient Hindu gopuram gate. It was widely used in Javanese Hindu and Buddhist temples after the 8th and 9th centuries. After the 15th century, Islamic sultanates adopted it for mosques, palaces, and tombs, though without the complex Hindu and Buddhist decorations.

The grand gate (kori agung) is actually a type of stepped temple (candi) in the Majapahit style. It is built from red brick and features beautiful patterns on its wooden door panels.



The main prayer hall of the mosque was rebuilt in modern times, but it still preserves two original grand gates (kori agung) inside.







The most famous structure at the Al-Aqsa Mosque is this minaret, which is the oldest in Java and the only one on the island from the 16th century. This tower is not a Persian-style spire at all. It is a traditional Javanese Majapahit-style tower, and a large drum (bedug) used for the call to prayer sits at the top. Today, drum towers (bale kulkul) of the same style still exist in Bali, where they are used to signal attacks, fires, or public events.



The ablution pool at the Al-Aqsa Mosque is also very unique. Every water tap has a traditional statue next to it. People say Sunan Kudus designed this during the early construction phase to attract local Hindus and Buddhists to come here to clean themselves.





Sunan Kudus passed away in 1550 and is buried in the backyard of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The holy tomb is also built in the traditional Majapahit architectural style.





The split gate (candi bentar) in the middle of the passage.



During the early 20th century.



Next is another grand gate (kori agung).



Then you enter the bathing area, where people clean their bodies to prepare for entering the holy tomb.





Passing through this split gate (candi bentar) leads you into the outer burial area.







Passing through this grand gate (kori agung) brings you to the actual holy tomb.







The Langgar Bubrah ruins are in a small alley south of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. They are an important witness to Java's transition from Hinduism to Islam in the 16th century.

People say Prince Pontjowati of the Majapahit Kingdom built Langgar Bubrah in 1533, and it was originally a Hindu temple. Later, Prince Pontjowati converted to Islam under Sunan Kudus and became his student, so the site was converted into a mosque.





Traditional Majapahit-style brick carvings.









The room once had a roof, but it did not survive. Now, only the stone column bases (umpak) that supported the roof remain. Next to the column bases is a Hindu linga, along with a stone used for grinding herbs.



Beside the ruins, there is also a Hindu stone carving of Shiva.





In the city of Demak, there is the tomb of Sunan Kalijaga, one of the nine saints (Wali Songo) of Javanese Islam, built in 1550. He played a major role in the spread of Islam in Java.

When Sunan Kalijaga performed missionary work (da'wah), he used local Javanese culture and art as a medium. He slowly integrated the faith into traditional Javanese customs, which was key to the formation of traditional Javanese Islamic culture.

During his missionary work, Sunan Kalijaga was skilled at using art forms like shadow puppetry (wayang), traditional gamelan music, and carving. He also promoted traditional Javanese Muslim clothing (baju takwa), the Sekaten festival, and the Grebeg Maulud parade.

Legend says Sunan Kalijaga lived to be 100 years old and did not pass away until 1550. During his life, he witnessed the fall of the Majapahit Kingdom and the establishment of the Demak, Cirebon, and Banten sultanates. He eventually passed away in Demak and was buried southeast of the city.

Today, the tomb of Sunan Kalijaga is one of the most important Islamic holy sites in Java, visited by hundreds of people every day.















I caught the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) at the Sunan Kalijaga tomb mosque and saw them use the traditional large drum (Bedug) for the call to prayer. After the Friday prayer, everyone received a popsicle and a snack, and everyone enjoyed them.











Next to the Sunan Kalijaga tomb is a large bazaar, where many stalls sell T-shirts and pictures featuring the face of the saint Sunan Kalijaga. I bought pictures of the nine saints (Wali Sanga) of Javanese Islam and the saint Sunan Kalijaga. Saint Sunan Kalijaga is the only one among the nine saints who wore traditional Javanese clothing, which shows how he used traditional Javanese culture as a way to spread the faith.









The locations of Demak and Kudus.





The four sultanates of the Spice Islands.

1. The Sultanate of Ternate in Indonesia (1486-1914).

The Sultanate of Ternate ruled parts of eastern Indonesia and the southern Philippines, making it the most powerful of the four sultanates in the Spice Islands. As the only place that produced cloves, Ternate controlled most of the spice trade in the Spice Islands.

Because of the reliance on the spice trade, Islam spread quickly to Ternate after Muslim merchants and Sufi sheikhs brought it to Java in the 15th century, and many people, including the royal family, converted to the faith. In 1486, the King of Ternate officially changed his title from Kolano to Sultan and established the Sultanate of Ternate.

After the Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511, the spice trade route that used to go through Malacca was temporarily cut off. In 1512, the Portuguese came to Ternate to control the spice trade, and the Sultan of Ternate also hoped to work with them, allowing them to build a fortress in 1522. The Portuguese soon began to control the sultanate, and the bad behavior of the Portuguese garrison and their efforts to spread Catholicism further strained their relationship with the Sultan. In 1535, the people of Ternate attacked a village that had converted to Catholicism, so the Portuguese deposed Sultan Tabariji and sent him to Goa, India, where he converted to Catholicism.

In 1550, Sultan Hairun was the ruler of the Ternate Sultanate. After the Portuguese deposed the old Sultan in 1535, they forcibly took Prince Hairun away to make him a puppet ruler, and Hairun's mother died after falling from a window while resisting them. Hairun was initially forced to live inside the Portuguese fortress, but he was later allowed to move around freely. Because the Portuguese wanted a more controllable Sultan, they decided to depose and exile Hairun to Goa, India, in 1544, while recalling the former Sultan Tabariji, who had already converted to Catholicism in Goa. However, Tabariji died on the way back, and Hairun returned to the throne in 1546.

The Portuguese spent years trying to get Hairun to convert, but their efforts proved useless. Still, to resist the other three sultanates in North Maluku, Hairun chose to keep working with the Portuguese. In 1550, the Sultanate of Jailolo angrily attacked a village that had recently converted to Catholicism. The Portuguese joined forces with the Sultanate of Ternate to conquer the Sultanate of Jailolo, which further increased the power of the Ternate Sultanate.

Residents of Ternate as depicted in the 1540 Portuguese work Códice Casanatense.



The Benteng Kota Janji, a castle built by the Portuguese on Ternate Island in 1522, which means Castle of Promise. This castle witnessed Sultan Hairun signing a treaty with the Portuguese, but it was also where Sultan Hairun was eventually assassinated by the Portuguese.

Photo by dangdude03.



The location of Ternate.





2. The Sultanate of Tidore in Indonesia (1450-1967).

Tidore Island, home to the Sultanate of Tidore, sits right next to Ternate Island. It was the main rival to the Sultanate of Ternate in the spice trade, and people say the very first cloves grew here. Like Ternate, Tidore converted to Islam in the late 15th century after being influenced by Arab Sufi sheikhs, which is when they officially established their sultanate.

When the Portuguese arrived in the Spice Islands in 1512, both the Sultanate of Tidore and the Sultanate of Ternate wanted to work with them. The Ternateans got there first and brought the Portuguese back to their country, so Tidore lost its chance to partner with them.

In 1521, the Sultanate of Tidore hosted Ferdinand Magellan’s Spanish fleet during their voyage around the world. To compete with the alliance between the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate, the Sultanate of Tidore gave the Magellan fleet a warm welcome and filled the Spanish ships with spices.

During the 1520s, the Sultanate of Tidore and the Sultanate of Ternate were constantly at war. The people of Tidore could not beat the Portuguese cannons, so they eventually had to sign a peace treaty.

In 1550, the Sultanate of Tidore was ruled by Sultan Mir. He took the throne in 1526, a time when Tidore was being invaded by the Portuguese, who even burned down the Sultan's palace. Finally, in 1527, the warm welcome Tidore had given Magellan’s fleet six years earlier paid off. A Spanish expedition arrived in Tidore after a three-year voyage. Although only one of the seven original ships remained, the alliance between Tidore and Spain was officially formed.

Because of threats from the Portuguese, the Spanish finally left Tidore in 1546, but the Spanish fort built on Tidore Island still stands today. In 1550, the joint forces of the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate conquered the Sultanate of Jailolo, which made them much stronger. They then pressured the Sultanate of Tidore and forced them to tear down the Spanish fort.

The location of Tidore





3. The Sultanate of Jailolo in Indonesia (late 15th century–1832)

The Sultanate of Jailolo was on the west coast of Halmahera Island, north of Ternate Island. It also rose to power because of the clove trade and officially became a sultanate after converting to Islam in the late 15th century.

In his 1515 book, The Suma Oriental: An Account of the East, from the Red Sea to China, the Portuguese explorer Tomé Pires recorded that the Sultanate of Jailolo was often at war with the Sultanate of Ternate. Many cloves grew within the sultanate, and although the king was a Muslim, most of the people were not.

In 1550, the ruler of the sultanate was Katarabumi. He was a devout Muslim and the main force resisting the Portuguese at the time. He fiercely attacked the Sultanate of Ternate for its alliance with the Portuguese and invaded villages that had converted to Catholicism, which earned him a high reputation locally.

In 1550, the joint forces of the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate besieged Katarabumi’s fort. After running out of food and supplies, Katarabumi was forced to surrender and was removed from power, and the Sultanate of Jailolo became a vassal state of the Sultanate of Ternate.

The location of Jailolo



4. The Sultanate of Bacan (late 15th century–1965)

The Sultanate of Bacan was in the Bacan Islands, south of Ternate Island. It also rose to power because of the clove trade and officially became a sultanate after converting to Islam in the late 15th century.

When the Portuguese first entered the Spice Islands in 1512, the Sultanate of Bacan had more people and ships than the other three sultanates in the Spice Islands. Compared to the other three sultanates, Bacan produced very few cloves and relied mainly on trading forest products from the Papua region. In the 1520s, the Sultanate of Bacan was hostile toward the alliance between the Portuguese and the Sultanate of Ternate. They tried to stay away from the Europeans, but the Portuguese eventually attacked their capital in 1534.

By the mid-16th century, the clove production of the Sultanate of Bacan had increased to match Ternate's. It became an important port of call for merchant ships and maintained friendly relations with the chiefs in Papua.

The location of Bacan



The Sultanate of Brunei in Brunei (1368–1888)

Brunei is located on the north coast of Borneo Island in Southeast Asia. It is made up mostly of Malay people and was part of the Hindu Majapahit Empire in the 14th century. In the 15th century, Indian and Arab merchants brought Islam through trade. Brunei then broke away from the Majapahit Empire, converted to Islam, and became the independent Sultanate of Brunei. From the 15th to the 17th century, the Sultanate of Brunei stretched from northern Borneo to the Sulu Archipelago in the southern Philippines, and even reached Manila in the northern Philippines. After the Portuguese conquered the Malacca Sultanate in 1511, many wealthy Malaccan nobles moved to Brunei, which further strengthened Brunei's power.

In 1521, Magellan's fleet arrived in Brunei. An Italian explorer on the fleet named Antonio Pigafetta left behind valuable records about the Sultanate of Brunei. He saw the main city of the Sultanate of Brunei at the time, Water Village (Kampong Ayer), and compared this city built entirely on water to the Venice of the East. In 1550, the seventh Sultan, Saiful Rijal, ruled Brunei.

Today, Water Village (Kampong Ayer) remains a water city.



The location of Brunei.



The Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines (1457–1915).

The Sultanate of Sulu is located at the intersection of today's Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Starting in the late 14th century, Sufi missionaries came to the Sulu Archipelago with Arab merchant caravans to spread the faith. In 1457, the Arab explorer Sharif ul-Hashim officially established the Sultanate of Sulu. He is recorded in his genealogy as a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

In 1550, the Sultanate of Sulu was a vassal of the Sultanate of Brunei. They would not become independent from the Sultanate of Brunei until after 1578.



The location of Sulu.



The Sultanate of Maguindanao in the Philippines (1520–1905).

The Sultanate of Maguindanao is located in the southern part of Mindanao Island in the Philippines. Its founder was Shariff Muhammed Kabungsuwan, who traveled from Johor on the Malay Peninsula to Maguindanao to preach. It is said he was a descendant of Imam Hasan.

In 1550, the second Sultan, Sharif Maka-alang, ruled the Sultanate of Maguindanao. The capital of the Sultanate of Maguindanao was Cotabato on Mindanao Island in the Philippines. The Maguindanao people living here are the sixth-largest ethnic group in the Philippines and are skilled at producing various metal tools.

The location of Maguindanao.



The online journey through 50 Muslim countries in 1550 ends here. Next time, I will choose another time period to continue this online travel. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Melaka — First Southeast Asian Sultanate and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Malacca sits on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Before the 14th century, it was just a fishing village in the Srivijaya Kingdom of Sumatra. The account keeps its focus on Melaka Sultanate, Southeast Asian Islam, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Malacca sits on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Before the 14th century, it was just a fishing village in the Srivijaya Kingdom of Sumatra. In the late 14th century, the Majapahit Kingdom of Java conquered Srivijaya. Prince Paramesvara fled the capital of Palembang and eventually settled in Malacca in 1400.

To defend against threats from the Siamese Kingdom, Paramesvara reached out to the Ming Dynasty. In 1406, the Yongle Emperor officially named him the King of Malacca. Under Paramesvara’s leadership, Arab, Indian, and Persian merchants began trading in Malacca. The city grew into a vital port connecting East Asia, West Asia, and South Asia.

Since most merchants trading in Malacca were Muslims, the rulers of Malacca increasingly recognized the importance of Islam to their trade. During the reign of the third ruler, Raja Tengah (1424-1444), all royal ministers converted to Islam. The king changed his name to Muhammad Shah and took the title of Sultan, making the Malacca Sultanate the first sultanate in Southeast Asia.

The Malacca Sultanate began to flourish in the mid-to-late 15th century. It controlled the Strait of Malacca and became a trade hub for Southeast Asia, with many Persian and Arab merchants using the port to trade with the Ming Dynasty and other parts of East Asia. Around 1500, the Malacca Sultanate reached its peak. It was a marketplace for Indian pepper and cloth, Chinese porcelain and silk, and Indonesian spices.



The Malacca Sultanate at its peak in the late 15th century, from Wikipedia.

The tomb of the Malacca Sultanate warrior Hang Kasturi.

Hang Kasturi was one of the five great warriors of the Malacca Sultanate who lived during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah (1456-1477). "Hang" is the highest honorary title given by the Sultan of Malacca to Malay warriors. The tomb of Hang Kasturi has a typical Indian style, which was likely built by later generations to commemorate him.









The fall of the Malacca Sultanate.

Until the end of the 15th century, spices in Europe were obtained through Venice, which got them from Arabia and India, while Arabia and India got them from Malacca. This process was complex and cumbersome. Driven by a desire for spices, the King of Portugal ordered his people to bypass the Cape of Good Hope to break the trade chain and establish a direct trade route with the East.

In 1509, a Portuguese representative arrived in Malacca with a letter from the King, hoping to establish direct trade with Malacca. Because the Portuguese had once used Catholics to fight against non-believers in India, the powerful Tamil Muslim faction in the Malacca court was very hostile toward them. The Malacca Sultanate eventually decided to arrest the Portuguese representatives. One representative escaped alone, while his companions were imprisoned.

In 1511, the Portuguese governor of India led 18 ships and 1,400 men to Malacca to negotiate the release of the prisoners with the Sultan. After three months of stalling, the Portuguese bribed the castle guards to open the main gate. The Portuguese army entered Malacca, and the last Sultan fled. His descendants later established the Johor Sultanate.

The Portuguese castle on the ruins of the Sultan's palace.

After occupying Malacca in 1511, the Portuguese built the A Famosa fort on the site of the original Malacca Sultanate palace. They planned to turn Malacca into a key trading port on the spice route between Europe and China, while also defending against attacks from the remaining forces of the Malacca Sultanate and the emerging Aceh Sultanate. A Famosa means "the famous" in Portuguese.

To build the castle, the Portuguese tore down Malacca's original palaces, graveyards, and every mosque. The original castle consisted of walls and four main towers. One was a four-story main building, while the other three served as an ammunition room, a captain's room, and officers' quarters. Most residents lived in the town inside the castle. As the population grew, the castle was expanded in 1586.



Malacca in 1780, with the castle on the right and the town on the left, from Wikipedia.







St. Paul's Church, built inside the castle in 1521, is the oldest church building in Southeast Asia.





The revival of the faith in the 18th century—traditional mosques in Malacca.

After the Portuguese occupied Malacca, they destroyed all the mosques of the Malacca Sultanate and promoted Catholicism in the city. However, the Portuguese were not successful. Catholicism did not have much influence in Malacca until the Dutch took over.

The Dutch adopted a more tolerant religious policy in Malacca, allowing Islam and Hinduism to spread. In 1728, the Dutch East India Company hired a Chinese convert to build a new mosque near the ruins of one destroyed by the Portuguese. This became the Kampung Hulu Mosque (Masjid Kampung Hulu). Kampong means village in the Malay language.





The mosque consists of a main prayer hall, a small ablution pool, and a minaret. The main hall uses the traditional Javanese Tajug multi-layered pyramid roof. The decoration at the very top is called a Mustoko or Memolo in Javanese. This roof design leaves space between the upper and middle layers for ventilation and light, which helps it handle the humid and rainy tropical climate.



Unlike traditional Javanese mosques built entirely of wood, the Kampung Hulu Mosque is made of brick and stone with plaster-coated roofs, showing the influence of Dutch colonial architecture.

The mosque's ceramic tiles and floor tiles were all imported from China, and the patterns on the windows also show Chinese influence.



The minbar inside the main hall features rich patterns and is very characteristic of Javanese style.





The minaret looks like a lighthouse, which is a first for the entire Malay Peninsula. Before this, mosques in the Malay Peninsula did not have a tradition of building minarets. On Java Island, the Great Mosque of Banten, built in 1632, was the first to have a lighthouse-style minaret designed and built by a Chinese man named Cek-ban-cut.



A traditional drum called a beduk (Beduk) sits above the mosque gate. Early traditional mosques in Southeast Asia used drums to call people to prayer. Today, many mosques still use drums to call people to prayer and signal the end of the daily fast during Jumu'ah and Ramadan.



Wudu pool







Tengkera Mosque (Masjid Tengkera) was the second mosque built in Malacca with funding from the Dutch East India Company. It was also completed in 1728, and its architectural style is similar to Kampung Kling Mosque, featuring the same traditional Javanese mosque roof.

Tengkera Mosque was originally a wooden structure made from timber that the Dutch East India Company bought from Kalimantan, Indonesia. After two renovations in 1890 and 1910, it was changed to the same brick and stone structure as Kampung Kling Mosque, and the roof was changed to glazed tiles.













The main prayer hall also has a beautifully carved minbar.





Water pool



Unlike the Kampung Hulu Mosque, the minaret of the Kampung Kling Mosque is modeled after a Chinese pagoda. This was the first of its kind on the Malay Peninsula and is now a major landmark in Malacca.





I bought a painting of the Kampung Kling Mosque from a Malay man on the mountain road next to St. Paul's Church.



The artist



Tomb of Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor

The tomb of Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor is in the backyard of the mosque. He played a key role in the founding of Singapore. After the Portuguese occupied Malacca in 1511, the Sultan of Malacca fled to Johor to continue his rule. In 1528, the last Sultan of Malacca passed away. His son, Alauddin Riayat Shah II, officially established the Johor Sultanate, viewing it as the legitimate continuation of the Malacca Sultanate.

Hussein Shah was born in 1776 and was the eldest son of Sultan Mahmud Shah III of Johor. When Mahmud Shah III passed away in 1812, Hussein Shah was not in the capital. His younger brother took the throne quickly with the support of government ministers, forcing Hussein Shah to flee to the Riau Islands.

In 1819, the British East India Company decided to build a new base in Southeast Asia. They found the exiled Hussein Shah and named him Sultan of Johor and Singapore in exchange for the right to establish a trading post in Singapore. Hussein Shah then came to Singapore and became a Sultan under British control.

In 1824, the British bought Singapore for 33,200 dollars, and Sultan Hussein Shah received 1,300 dollars every month. He held no real power in Singapore and served only as a symbolic figure.

Sultan Hussein Shah lived in Singapore until 1834, then moved to Malacca with his family. He passed away in 1835 and was buried at the Tengkera Mosque (Dongjiena qingzhensi).











Minaret ruins

Not far east of the Kampung Kling Mosque (Masjid Kampong Kling) stands a minaret built in the style of a Chinese pagoda. It bears the inscription 'Menara lama surau tengkera di bina pada tahun 1728,' which means 'old mosque tower built in 1728.' This is likely a remnant of another mosque funded by the Dutch East India Company in 1728.



The Kampung Kling Mosque (Masjid Kampong Kling) was built in 1748 by Indian Muslims who were doing business in Malacca. The name Kling comes from the local term for Indian people, 'Kalinga'. This area was a settlement for Indian Muslims in the 18th century. However, after the rubber industry boomed in Malacca from the 19th to the early 20th century, it became a residential area for Chinese people who came to work in the rubber industry.



The Kampung Kling Mosque (Masjid Kampong Kling) shares a similar style with the two mosques built earlier. The main prayer hall was originally a wooden structure, but it was rebuilt with brick and wood in 1872.





There are students visiting in the courtyard.



The Corinthian columns around and inside the main hall are a special feature of this mosque. The floor tiles were imported from China, and the hall has a Victorian-style ceiling and a beautifully carved pulpit (minbar).













The minaret is also built in the style of a Chinese pagoda.





Water pool



The 1940 flagpole.



Malaysian Architectural Museum (Muzium Seni Bina Malaysia).

At the foot of the A Famosa fortress, there is a series of museums converted from historic buildings, many of which are related to Islam. Let's start our tour at the Malaysian Architectural Museum.



Acehnese-style gravestones

During the era of the Malacca Sultanate, many royals and important figures were buried using Acehnese-style gravestones. Aceh is located in the northern part of Sumatra, Indonesia. From the early 16th century to the early 20th century, the Acehnese people established the highly influential Aceh Sultanate.

There are two types of Acehnese-style gravestones: the men's version is wider with two distinct corners, while the women's version is pyramid-shaped. The gravestones usually feature the name of the deceased, their birth and death dates, as well as Quranic verses and some poetry.







Traditional wooden doors in the style of the Malay East Coast

Wooden doors in the Malay East Coast style, carved with traditional Arabic calligraphy and floral patterns.





Malacca Islamic Museum (Muzium Islam Melaka)

The building housing the Malacca Islamic Museum was once the Malacca Islamic Council office. Its exact construction date is unknown, but it is estimated to be from the British colonial period in the 1850s. Some believe the lower level was built during the Dutch colonial period (1641-1824) and the upper level was added later by the British.

This building served as the Malacca Islamic Council office until 1990, after which it became the Malacca Islamic Museum.



Two sundials used to indicate prayer times at the Kampung Kling Mosque in Malacca. These sundials are usually used for the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) and the afternoon prayers. Because they require sunlight, they cannot be used for the dawn (Fajr) or night (Isha) prayers.







The prayer drum (beduk) used for the call to prayer at Kampung Kling Mosque is usually kept in the mosque corridor. The prayer drum was brought to Malacca from Java. It is typically made from tropical hardwoods like merbau or chegal, and it is played in a way similar to the Japanese taiko drum.

The prayer drum is played differently during the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) than at other times. During Ramadan, the beduk drum signals the nightly breaking of the fast, and during Eid al-Fitr, people beat the beduk drum while reciting the takbir.



These two wooden tombstones are among the oldest Muslim grave markers found in Malacca, and they were moved from the Tengkera Mosque (Masjid Tengkera) to the museum in 2014.



These tombstones made of laterite stone were often used for Muslim graves during the Portuguese occupation (1511-1641), and they were also moved from the Tengkera Mosque to the museum in 2014.



This is a handwritten Quran manuscript by a haji in Malacca, copied in 1881. The dark text is the scripture, and the light text is the Indonesian translation.



A handwritten Quran manuscript from the museum collection.



A porcelain plate from the Dutch occupation period (1641-1824).



This is a typical traditional Malaysian hardwood carved pulpit (minbar), usually found to the right of the mihrab.



The Malay World and Islamic World Museum (Muzium Dunia Melayu Dunia Islam) in Malaysia.

The Malay World and Islamic World Museum in Malacca sits next to the A Famosa gate. The building was originally the office for a British rubber company built in 1910. Malacca saw a brief boom in the early 20th century thanks to the rubber industry. This era left behind many large homes belonging to Nanyang Chinese families, as well as this British-style building.



The museum houses handwritten scriptures and the traditional tools used to copy them.







A beduk drum from the Bukit Darat mosque in Malacca, dating back 70 or 80 years.



A traditional Malay pulpit (minbar).



When I visited, the museum was hosting a special exhibition from the South Sumatra Provincial Museum in Indonesia.



Headdresses and traditional musical instruments from the people of South Sumatra province.







This is a model of a traditional mosque from South Sumatra province. You can see that the mosques built in Malacca during the Dutch colonial period used this same three-tiered roof design.



Students resting and eating lunch in front of the museum, along with an auntie selling watermelon juice and coconut water.











Malacca Quran Museum (Muzium Al-quran Melaka).

The Malacca Quran Museum is next to the Malacca State Mosque. It opened in 2008 and holds some interesting collections.





Handwritten scriptures from the Aceh region in northwestern Sumatra.



Handwritten scriptures from Java.



A collection from a professor at Universiti Putra Malaysia.



Handwritten scriptures from the 18th-century Sultanate of Patani. The Sultanate of Patani was located on the border of present-day northern Malaysia and Thailand, and it served as a center for Islamic faith and scripture printing in northern Malaysia from the 15th to the 18th century.



This early 19th-century manuscript from Java is made from a local Javanese tree leaf called deluwang.



A manuscript from the Aceh region in northwestern Sumatra, dating between the 18th and 19th centuries.



An early 19th-century handwritten Quran from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula.



The most common colors used for manuscripts across Malaysia. These are Johor, Malacca, Sarawak, Selangor, and Pahang. view all