Exploring Ningxia Muslim Culture, Historic Mosques, Sufi Shrines & Halal Heritage in Northwest China
[Internet Repost]
Travel Notes from Southern Ningxia, Part 3: Stepping into the Jiangnan of the Saibei Frontier and the Folk Customs of the Ancient Liupan Mountains
Abstract:
A visual and written field report crossing provincial borders into the Muslim heartland of southern Ningxia. Capturing the striking initial impressions of northwestern Islamic culture and plateau landscapes, with detailed portraits of minarets and the peaceful everyday rhythm of Hui Muslim villages.
丨Guamagou丨
-
A Landscape Like an Oil Painting
-
Passing through the Liupan Mountains, you officially enter Ningxia. The Liupan Mountains are steeped in stories. Growing up, I heard Gansu referred to as Long (陇), but I never knew where Long Mountain was. Later, I learned that Long Mountain is actually the Liupan Range, stretching all the way north to the southern Guanshan, forming a major geographical divide. You have to respect how geography shapes culture: taking Long Mountain as the boundary, the Hui Muslims of Longxi (western Gansu) and east of Long Mountain differ vastly in temperament and culture.
To a certain extent, the Hehuang region can also be considered part of Longxi, yet it retains its own distinct uniqueness. When I saw Hui Muslims from Ningxia, Pingliang, and Zhangchuan in Xining as a child, I always found it fascinating that such Hui communities existed—not because of linguistic differences, but because their demeanor, posture, and aura were so vastly different from yours, making you feel the world is truly incredible. Thus, for many years, I never had the chance to step into Ningxia, visiting Yinchuan only once years ago in a perfunctory, hurried work trip. To a cultural traditionalist, Yinchuan doesn't quite feel like the 'real' Ningxia.
Stepping past the foot of the Liupan Mountains felt like truly entering the Ningxia that had seemed so magical to me in childhood. Spotting an earthen fortress by the road, I initially thought it was an old farming redoubt. A large roadside sign read 'Xiaoguan Pass' (萧关), and memories of Tang dynasty poetry instantly came alive: 'In the cold autumn of the eighth month on the Xiaoguan road,' 'Ever since smoke of war rose from Xiaoguan,' 'Dangerous are the roads of Huizhong, and beacon fires are frequent at Xiaoguan,' 'Meeting scout riders at Xiaoguan, the grand protector is in Yanran.' The character 'xiao' (萧) itself evokes an autumnal desolation, and coupled with the martial travel imagery of Tang poetry, reciting 'Xiaoguan' makes you shiver. Yet the real Xiaoguan is not grim or cold; its vegetation and weather are fresh and bright.
The standard route into Ningxia usually heads straight north to Guyuan, but my first stop this time was to branch east from Qingshizui. Heading east brought me into present-day Pengyang County, but before reaching the county seat, I turned south into the mountains, arriving at a place called Guamagou. Even today, this spot is deeply secluded, perhaps known to very few locals in Guyuan. Yet this tiny place is a crucial point on the Sufi map of Ningxia, a must-visit because of the Guamagou gongbei (Sufi shrine / mausoleum complex). The master interred at Guamagou Gongbei is named Hai Hu. Due to today's rigid sectarian boundaries and the rise of emerging orders, Hai Hu's name is known primarily only within the inner circles of the Xianzun lineage.
The Sufi orders in Ningxia today are complex and branching, but essentially boil down to three major ones: Khufiyya (虎夫耶), Qadiriyya (嘎德仁耶), and Jahriyya (哲合忍耶). Among the first two, there are further new and old branches. Today, the Khufiyya in Ningxia is most dominated by the lineage passed down from the Old Master of Liangzhou Zhuang in Qinghai, which has become almost synonymous with Ningxia Khufiyya. In reality, the Liangzhou Zhuang lineage—represented by Hongmen and others—is a neo-Khufiyya, which we in Qinghai call the 'Minor Khufiyya' (小虎夫耶), whereas ancient lineages like the Xianzun (鲜门) are known as the 'Major Khufiyya' (大虎夫耶). When studying Ningxia's Khufiyya, one must never overlook the Xianzun branch. As for the differences and connections between the Major and Minor Khufiyya, or the old and new branches of the Qadiriyya, we will dive into them as our written journey takes us to the right places.
Speaking of the Xianzun lineage, I must tiresomely mention Apak Khoja. In the early Kangxi era, Apak Khoja traveled east to Xining, propagating his teachings to several key disciples. Among them, Xian Meizhen of Xining propagated the most vigorously, reaching as far as Yangzhou—marking the first time the Sufi map expanded beyond the Hehuang basin. Ningxia, in particular, became an important testing ground for the Xianzun lineage. Xian Meizhen conducted his first trial in Ningxia during the Kangxi reign, and it was a resounding success. The primary reason was likely that he cultivated fine stock in Guyuan—Hai Hu. True to Xian Meizhen's expectations, Hai Hu grew into a towering tree and became Xian Meizhen's vanguard in Ningxia.
From the perspective of Ningxia's Sufi history, the Xianzun lineage was the earliest Sufi order to enter Ningxia. It is even possible that Xian Meizhen, Hai Hu, and others were the very ones to systematically introduce Sufism to Ningxia. Hai Hu's contribution is indelible. Before the Tongzhi Hui revolts, the Xianzun lineage—as Ningxia's sole Khufiyya and oldest Sufi order—shared the region almost equally with the Jahriyya.
No one knows how Hai Hu from Guyuan and Xian Meizhen from Xining came to cross paths, and the Xianzun lineage has lost the historical records of this connection. The interactions between Xian and Hai that I wrote in my book *Legends of Hehuang Heroes* were entirely a product of my imagination, crafted to keep the narrative flowing. Therefore, *Legends of Hehuang Heroes* should be read as a story, not as history, which I have stated long ago. That is why I was so eager to come to Guamagou and witness the spiritual presence of Hai Hu.
△ Interior view of Guamagou Gongbei
If I am not mistaken, the name Guamagou (Hanging Horse Gully) likely comes from the days when the vegetation was so dense and overgrown that horses would get tangled or caught in it, hence the name. Lying beneath the Liupan Mountains, the gully fits my guess. Guamagou is somewhat similar to Bazang Gully in Qinghai—the resting place of the second-generation Xianzun leaders. Both follow a dry riverbed deep southward into a canyon, though Bazang Gully runs deeper than Guamagou. There is only this one gongbei in the gully. Whenever you ask locals for directions, they point you straight to the shrine. I assumed most people in the gully were followers of the Xianzun order, but after chatting with the elder guarding the gongbei, I learned they are actually all Jahriyya and Ikhwan, with not a single Xianzun follower left—only this single Xianzun family guarding the shrine across generations.
Inside the pavilion at Guamagou Gongbei, there are four identical graves. With an unshakeable intuition, I recognized Master Hai Hu's tomb among the identical four. Stepping down to cross-reference with the elder guarding the shrine confirmed my certainty. The elder explained that the central grave is the memorial tomb of Master Xian Meizhen; to the left is Master Xinbei, the great-grandson of Master Xian; to the right is Master Hai; and at Master Xinbei's feet lies his son, Xian Linbai.
The elder was dark-skinned and lean, just like the honest farmers of this gully, and warmly invited us into his home. I originally thought his surname would be Hai, but it turned out to be Xian—he is a descendant of Xian Meizhen. Emerging from the gongbei, in the distance on an earthen slope outside the gate, I saw an elderly man with a flowing white beard leaning on a staff, standing tall and gazing right at us beneath a stunning old apricot tree. He looked magnificent, just like an oil painting. I couldn't help walking up to greet him with a *Salam* (peace be upon you). The elder said that was his father.
Walking up the slope toward the apricot tree, I thought to myself: Hey, isn't this my grandfather? Isn't this the old Sufis I've met? Aren't these living men of the past? He, too, was a living man of the past. His demeanor was completely different from his son's. Without being told, no one would guess they were father and son. The old man radiated a sense of cleanliness and elegance from inside out, as if the muddy, dusty life of the loess hills had nothing to do with him, whereas his son clearly appeared deeply intertwined with the soil.
The old man's conversational style also retained an archaic charm—he asked few questions, but every sentence was steeped in etiquette. Propriety and restraint are truly intertwined. The old man was 89 years old. Judging by his brow and facial contours, he indeed strongly resembled the Xian family descendants in Qinghai—a textbook portrait of a descendant of Master Xian. Back in Qinghai, when I spoke with Elder Xian Fuxing of the Xianzun Gongbei, he said the old man was his paternal uncle's generation and an ordained *akhund* (Islamic scholar). That being the case, if I am not mistaken, the old man should be Xian Peizhi, son of Xian Yulin (who belonged to the eldest household of Xian Linbai), making him a seventh-generation descendant of the Xianzun forefather.
△ Archaic charm and the elder
The sky over Guamagou was so pure that white clouds were simply white clouds and blue skies were blue skies—the conceptualized blue sky and white clouds of children's drawings. The crops and artemisia weeds in the fields stood out in vibrant, distinct lines. There was no trash, no dust; the loess earth beneath your feet invited you to sit or lie down without hesitation, and apricots dripping from the branches could be popped into your mouth effortlessly. The households here were poor yet un destitute; the earthen courtyards were swept impeccably clean, and the old man beneath the tree was as pristine as an ancient painting.
Master Hai Hu was not originally buried in Guamagou; he was buried at Haijiadaping in Tianziniao, and was moved to Guamagou during the turmoil of the Tongzhi Hui revolts. The Xianzun order holds Master Hai Hu in the highest regard, describing him as 'half sovereign, half subject.' The Major Khufiyya has a strict hierarchy of sovereign and subject: the spiritual guide is the sovereign, and all *murids* (disciples) are subjects. Master Xian Meizhen once made an exception by bestowing upon Master Hai Hu a seal of authority, tacitly allowing him independent proselytizing rights. Thus, the Xianzun order calls him 'half sovereign, half subject,' which speaks volumes about Hai Hu's standing in the hearts of the Xian family.
The importance of Guamagou within the Xianzun gongbei system lies not only in being Master Hai Hu's burial site, but also in the fact that the Xianzun missionary system split into two branches—Ningxia and Qinghai—starting from the fifth generation, Xian Linbai. After migrating to Ningxia, Xian Linbai lived in seclusion at Guamagou, farming and studying part-time, established a *daotang* (Sufi hall/school), relocated the remains of his father, Master Xinbei, from Qinghai to the Guamagou Gongbei, and spent the remainder of his life there.
You could say that Guamagou, much like Bazang Gully in Qinghai, nurtured the Xian family and serves as the umbilical cradle of the Ningxia Xianzun lineage. Although later descendants stepped out of Guamagou to establish *daotang* in Xiji, Guamagou remains an eternal, mother-like presence. All the households surrounding Guamagou Gongbei responded to the government's call and migrated down the mountain to settle in the Yellow River agricultural plains, leaving the area around the gongbei desolate. Yet only the family of the elderly Xian man refused to descend the mountain, continuing to meticulously tend this pure and immaculate courtyard. The younger members of the Xian family went down the mountain just like everyone else in the village; only these two generations of father and son stood firm. I asked the old man: Given your advanced age, why haven't you moved down the mountain into the city? The white-bearded elder turned serious, pointing his walking stick toward the gongbei: 'Ah, I just can't bear to leave this behind!'
△ Cannot bear to leave this behind
The eldest branch of Xian Linbai never left Guamagou, while the second branch stepped out of Guamagou to inherit religious authority. To briefly outline the Xianzun lineage: Master Zhuzi (Xian Meizhen) — Master Huazhe — Master Chuanli (Xian Chengzhen) — Master Xinbei (Xian Xianghui) — Xian Linbai (after whom the Ningxia and Qinghai missions split). Other important Xianzun gongbei in Ningxia include Qiganliang and Qiancha, both located in Xiji. Qiganliang is the tomb of Xian Yuzhen (son of Xian Linbai), while Qiancha holds the tombs of Ma Cang, Ma Ji, and Ma Ping—three brothers who were *murids* of Xian Meizhen in Ningxia and are also featured in *Legends of Hehuang Heroes*.
The sun was setting, and the fields were as silent as a mystery. All the way back on the road, I kept pondering the old man's words: 'Ah, I just can't bear to leave this behind!' Looking back at Guamagou, everything had already become antiquity.
—END—
Travel Notes from Southern Ningxia, Part 3: Stepping into the Jiangnan of the Saibei Frontier and the Folk Customs of the Ancient Liupan Mountains
Abstract:
A visual and written field report crossing provincial borders into the Muslim heartland of southern Ningxia. Capturing the striking initial impressions of northwestern Islamic culture and plateau landscapes, with detailed portraits of minarets and the peaceful everyday rhythm of Hui Muslim villages.
丨Guamagou丨
-
A Landscape Like an Oil Painting
-
Passing through the Liupan Mountains, you officially enter Ningxia. The Liupan Mountains are steeped in stories. Growing up, I heard Gansu referred to as Long (陇), but I never knew where Long Mountain was. Later, I learned that Long Mountain is actually the Liupan Range, stretching all the way north to the southern Guanshan, forming a major geographical divide. You have to respect how geography shapes culture: taking Long Mountain as the boundary, the Hui Muslims of Longxi (western Gansu) and east of Long Mountain differ vastly in temperament and culture.
To a certain extent, the Hehuang region can also be considered part of Longxi, yet it retains its own distinct uniqueness. When I saw Hui Muslims from Ningxia, Pingliang, and Zhangchuan in Xining as a child, I always found it fascinating that such Hui communities existed—not because of linguistic differences, but because their demeanor, posture, and aura were so vastly different from yours, making you feel the world is truly incredible. Thus, for many years, I never had the chance to step into Ningxia, visiting Yinchuan only once years ago in a perfunctory, hurried work trip. To a cultural traditionalist, Yinchuan doesn't quite feel like the 'real' Ningxia.
Stepping past the foot of the Liupan Mountains felt like truly entering the Ningxia that had seemed so magical to me in childhood. Spotting an earthen fortress by the road, I initially thought it was an old farming redoubt. A large roadside sign read 'Xiaoguan Pass' (萧关), and memories of Tang dynasty poetry instantly came alive: 'In the cold autumn of the eighth month on the Xiaoguan road,' 'Ever since smoke of war rose from Xiaoguan,' 'Dangerous are the roads of Huizhong, and beacon fires are frequent at Xiaoguan,' 'Meeting scout riders at Xiaoguan, the grand protector is in Yanran.' The character 'xiao' (萧) itself evokes an autumnal desolation, and coupled with the martial travel imagery of Tang poetry, reciting 'Xiaoguan' makes you shiver. Yet the real Xiaoguan is not grim or cold; its vegetation and weather are fresh and bright.
The standard route into Ningxia usually heads straight north to Guyuan, but my first stop this time was to branch east from Qingshizui. Heading east brought me into present-day Pengyang County, but before reaching the county seat, I turned south into the mountains, arriving at a place called Guamagou. Even today, this spot is deeply secluded, perhaps known to very few locals in Guyuan. Yet this tiny place is a crucial point on the Sufi map of Ningxia, a must-visit because of the Guamagou gongbei (Sufi shrine / mausoleum complex). The master interred at Guamagou Gongbei is named Hai Hu. Due to today's rigid sectarian boundaries and the rise of emerging orders, Hai Hu's name is known primarily only within the inner circles of the Xianzun lineage.
The Sufi orders in Ningxia today are complex and branching, but essentially boil down to three major ones: Khufiyya (虎夫耶), Qadiriyya (嘎德仁耶), and Jahriyya (哲合忍耶). Among the first two, there are further new and old branches. Today, the Khufiyya in Ningxia is most dominated by the lineage passed down from the Old Master of Liangzhou Zhuang in Qinghai, which has become almost synonymous with Ningxia Khufiyya. In reality, the Liangzhou Zhuang lineage—represented by Hongmen and others—is a neo-Khufiyya, which we in Qinghai call the 'Minor Khufiyya' (小虎夫耶), whereas ancient lineages like the Xianzun (鲜门) are known as the 'Major Khufiyya' (大虎夫耶). When studying Ningxia's Khufiyya, one must never overlook the Xianzun branch. As for the differences and connections between the Major and Minor Khufiyya, or the old and new branches of the Qadiriyya, we will dive into them as our written journey takes us to the right places.
Speaking of the Xianzun lineage, I must tiresomely mention Apak Khoja. In the early Kangxi era, Apak Khoja traveled east to Xining, propagating his teachings to several key disciples. Among them, Xian Meizhen of Xining propagated the most vigorously, reaching as far as Yangzhou—marking the first time the Sufi map expanded beyond the Hehuang basin. Ningxia, in particular, became an important testing ground for the Xianzun lineage. Xian Meizhen conducted his first trial in Ningxia during the Kangxi reign, and it was a resounding success. The primary reason was likely that he cultivated fine stock in Guyuan—Hai Hu. True to Xian Meizhen's expectations, Hai Hu grew into a towering tree and became Xian Meizhen's vanguard in Ningxia.
From the perspective of Ningxia's Sufi history, the Xianzun lineage was the earliest Sufi order to enter Ningxia. It is even possible that Xian Meizhen, Hai Hu, and others were the very ones to systematically introduce Sufism to Ningxia. Hai Hu's contribution is indelible. Before the Tongzhi Hui revolts, the Xianzun lineage—as Ningxia's sole Khufiyya and oldest Sufi order—shared the region almost equally with the Jahriyya.
No one knows how Hai Hu from Guyuan and Xian Meizhen from Xining came to cross paths, and the Xianzun lineage has lost the historical records of this connection. The interactions between Xian and Hai that I wrote in my book *Legends of Hehuang Heroes* were entirely a product of my imagination, crafted to keep the narrative flowing. Therefore, *Legends of Hehuang Heroes* should be read as a story, not as history, which I have stated long ago. That is why I was so eager to come to Guamagou and witness the spiritual presence of Hai Hu.
△ Interior view of Guamagou Gongbei
If I am not mistaken, the name Guamagou (Hanging Horse Gully) likely comes from the days when the vegetation was so dense and overgrown that horses would get tangled or caught in it, hence the name. Lying beneath the Liupan Mountains, the gully fits my guess. Guamagou is somewhat similar to Bazang Gully in Qinghai—the resting place of the second-generation Xianzun leaders. Both follow a dry riverbed deep southward into a canyon, though Bazang Gully runs deeper than Guamagou. There is only this one gongbei in the gully. Whenever you ask locals for directions, they point you straight to the shrine. I assumed most people in the gully were followers of the Xianzun order, but after chatting with the elder guarding the gongbei, I learned they are actually all Jahriyya and Ikhwan, with not a single Xianzun follower left—only this single Xianzun family guarding the shrine across generations.
Inside the pavilion at Guamagou Gongbei, there are four identical graves. With an unshakeable intuition, I recognized Master Hai Hu's tomb among the identical four. Stepping down to cross-reference with the elder guarding the shrine confirmed my certainty. The elder explained that the central grave is the memorial tomb of Master Xian Meizhen; to the left is Master Xinbei, the great-grandson of Master Xian; to the right is Master Hai; and at Master Xinbei's feet lies his son, Xian Linbai.
The elder was dark-skinned and lean, just like the honest farmers of this gully, and warmly invited us into his home. I originally thought his surname would be Hai, but it turned out to be Xian—he is a descendant of Xian Meizhen. Emerging from the gongbei, in the distance on an earthen slope outside the gate, I saw an elderly man with a flowing white beard leaning on a staff, standing tall and gazing right at us beneath a stunning old apricot tree. He looked magnificent, just like an oil painting. I couldn't help walking up to greet him with a *Salam* (peace be upon you). The elder said that was his father.
Walking up the slope toward the apricot tree, I thought to myself: Hey, isn't this my grandfather? Isn't this the old Sufis I've met? Aren't these living men of the past? He, too, was a living man of the past. His demeanor was completely different from his son's. Without being told, no one would guess they were father and son. The old man radiated a sense of cleanliness and elegance from inside out, as if the muddy, dusty life of the loess hills had nothing to do with him, whereas his son clearly appeared deeply intertwined with the soil.
The old man's conversational style also retained an archaic charm—he asked few questions, but every sentence was steeped in etiquette. Propriety and restraint are truly intertwined. The old man was 89 years old. Judging by his brow and facial contours, he indeed strongly resembled the Xian family descendants in Qinghai—a textbook portrait of a descendant of Master Xian. Back in Qinghai, when I spoke with Elder Xian Fuxing of the Xianzun Gongbei, he said the old man was his paternal uncle's generation and an ordained *akhund* (Islamic scholar). That being the case, if I am not mistaken, the old man should be Xian Peizhi, son of Xian Yulin (who belonged to the eldest household of Xian Linbai), making him a seventh-generation descendant of the Xianzun forefather.
△ Archaic charm and the elder
The sky over Guamagou was so pure that white clouds were simply white clouds and blue skies were blue skies—the conceptualized blue sky and white clouds of children's drawings. The crops and artemisia weeds in the fields stood out in vibrant, distinct lines. There was no trash, no dust; the loess earth beneath your feet invited you to sit or lie down without hesitation, and apricots dripping from the branches could be popped into your mouth effortlessly. The households here were poor yet un destitute; the earthen courtyards were swept impeccably clean, and the old man beneath the tree was as pristine as an ancient painting.
Master Hai Hu was not originally buried in Guamagou; he was buried at Haijiadaping in Tianziniao, and was moved to Guamagou during the turmoil of the Tongzhi Hui revolts. The Xianzun order holds Master Hai Hu in the highest regard, describing him as 'half sovereign, half subject.' The Major Khufiyya has a strict hierarchy of sovereign and subject: the spiritual guide is the sovereign, and all *murids* (disciples) are subjects. Master Xian Meizhen once made an exception by bestowing upon Master Hai Hu a seal of authority, tacitly allowing him independent proselytizing rights. Thus, the Xianzun order calls him 'half sovereign, half subject,' which speaks volumes about Hai Hu's standing in the hearts of the Xian family.
The importance of Guamagou within the Xianzun gongbei system lies not only in being Master Hai Hu's burial site, but also in the fact that the Xianzun missionary system split into two branches—Ningxia and Qinghai—starting from the fifth generation, Xian Linbai. After migrating to Ningxia, Xian Linbai lived in seclusion at Guamagou, farming and studying part-time, established a *daotang* (Sufi hall/school), relocated the remains of his father, Master Xinbei, from Qinghai to the Guamagou Gongbei, and spent the remainder of his life there.
You could say that Guamagou, much like Bazang Gully in Qinghai, nurtured the Xian family and serves as the umbilical cradle of the Ningxia Xianzun lineage. Although later descendants stepped out of Guamagou to establish *daotang* in Xiji, Guamagou remains an eternal, mother-like presence. All the households surrounding Guamagou Gongbei responded to the government's call and migrated down the mountain to settle in the Yellow River agricultural plains, leaving the area around the gongbei desolate. Yet only the family of the elderly Xian man refused to descend the mountain, continuing to meticulously tend this pure and immaculate courtyard. The younger members of the Xian family went down the mountain just like everyone else in the village; only these two generations of father and son stood firm. I asked the old man: Given your advanced age, why haven't you moved down the mountain into the city? The white-bearded elder turned serious, pointing his walking stick toward the gongbei: 'Ah, I just can't bear to leave this behind!'
△ Cannot bear to leave this behind
The eldest branch of Xian Linbai never left Guamagou, while the second branch stepped out of Guamagou to inherit religious authority. To briefly outline the Xianzun lineage: Master Zhuzi (Xian Meizhen) — Master Huazhe — Master Chuanli (Xian Chengzhen) — Master Xinbei (Xian Xianghui) — Xian Linbai (after whom the Ningxia and Qinghai missions split). Other important Xianzun gongbei in Ningxia include Qiganliang and Qiancha, both located in Xiji. Qiganliang is the tomb of Xian Yuzhen (son of Xian Linbai), while Qiancha holds the tombs of Ma Cang, Ma Ji, and Ma Ping—three brothers who were *murids* of Xian Meizhen in Ningxia and are also featured in *Legends of Hehuang Heroes*.
The sun was setting, and the fields were as silent as a mystery. All the way back on the road, I kept pondering the old man's words: 'Ah, I just can't bear to leave this behind!' Looking back at Guamagou, everything had already become antiquity.
—END—
