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Summary: Islamic History Guide: Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque - A Thousand Years of Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear, natural English. The account focuses on Quanzhou, Qingjing Mosque, Islamic History while preserving the names, places, food, photos, and historical details from the Chinese source.

I arrived in Quanzhou at night and went straight to the Qingjing Mosque to pray. Imam Ma at the Qingjing Mosque is from Hualong, Qinghai. During the day, he leads namaz in the main hall donated by Oman, but after the tourist area closes, he leads prayers in the smaller Mingshan Hall.

Mingshan Hall was first built in 1567 (the first year of the Longqing reign of the Ming Dynasty). After the roof of the main hall of the Qingjing Mosque collapsed in the early Qing Dynasty, Mingshan Hall became the place for worship. In 1818 (the 23rd year of the Jiaqing reign), Ma Jianji, a military commander from Sichuan stationed in Quanzhou, rebuilt Mingshan Hall in the traditional architectural style of southern Fujian. In 1871 (the 10th year of the Tongzhi reign), Jiang Changgui, the military commander for Fujian Province, rebuilt Mingshan Hall again.

During the Tongzhi reign, Jiang Changgui collected many stone tablets with Arabic inscriptions from the Yuan Dynasty in Quanzhou and embedded them into the walls of Mingshan Hall. These stone tablets were not removed until the major renovation of Mingshan Hall in the spring of 1983. Many of these tablets are Yuan Dynasty tombstones. The people buried there came from places like Tabriz and Tehran in Iran, Adana in Turkey, Nablus in Palestine, and Khwarezm in Uzbekistan.

Mingshan Hall sits just north of Bagua Ditch, which served as the city moat for Quanzhou during the Five Dynasties and Northern Song periods. A granite stone bridge from the Song Dynasty originally crossed the ditch, but it was rebuilt in 1998 when Bagua Ditch was widened.



















Night view of Qingjing Mosque.











The next morning, I continued exploring Qingjing Mosque.

The gate tower of Qingjing Mosque is built from diabase and white granite, with Quranic verses (3:18-19) carved into the front.

The moon-sighting platform at the top of the gate is where people used to look for the new moon during Ramadan. When the local Muslim community was still active in Quanzhou, they hung three large lanterns on the gate every Ramadan. A large palace lantern hung in the center of the pointed arch, inscribed with the words 'Islam' in both Chinese and Arabic. Two long, oval-shaped government-style lanterns hung on either side, with the left one reading 'Ancient Faith of the Hui Muslims' and the right one reading 'Ancient Qingzhen Qilin Mosque'. Every night, the names of household heads are listed on a round plaque inside the mosque, and each family takes turns lighting the lamps.

The inside of the main gate is made of three layers of arches. The outer layer is a pointed arch. At the top, there is an open hanging lotus flower carved from diabase. Below it are sixteen layers of curved stone blocks that get higher and narrower until they meet at the lotus. The middle arch is made of five fan-shaped white granite blocks with turtle-back patterns. There are foundation stones underneath, and the inner layer is a dome. On the stone walls on both sides of each layer, there is a pair of pointed-arch niches (yaokan).

Above the back of the main gate, there are two lines of Arabic inscriptions carved into white granite. They record that the Qingjing Mosque was first built in 1009 and rebuilt by Ahmad in 1310. This is also where the mosque's original name, Ashab Mosque, or "Mosque of the Holy Companions," is mentioned. Professor Ma Jian translated it in 1956 as follows:

"This mosque is the first holy mosque for the followers of Islam residing in this country." It is the oldest and most authentic, revered by all, and thus named the Mosque of the Holy Friend (Shengyou zhi Si), built in the year 400 of the Hijri calendar. Three hundred years later, in the year 710 of the Hijri calendar, a pilgrim from Jerusalem named Muhammad, also known as Shiraz (Shelashi), had a son named Ahmad who funded the renovation of this holy mosque. The dome above the main gate, the roof, the golden gate corridor, and the doors and windows were all made brand new to honor Allah. They offer dua to Allah and the Prophet Muhammad and his family, asking for their forgiveness in the future.

The inscription mentions two place names, one being al-Quds, which is the Arabic name for Jerusalem. The other is Shiraz, an ancient city in southern Iran.

The east side of the main gate originally held a minaret (bangke ta), but it was blown down by a strong wind in 1687 (the 26th year of the Kangxi reign) and has not been repaired since.

To the west of the main gate is the south wall of the main prayer hall, where eight square windows were added during the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty. The upper part is carved with 19 meters of scripture, containing the entire 76th chapter of the Quran.



















Inside the main gate of the Qingjing Mosque, on the east side, stand two stone tablets from the Ming Dynasty. The first one, the Stele for the Re-establishment of Qingjing Mosque (Chongli Qingjing Si Bei), was originally written by Wu Jian in 1350 (the tenth year of the Zhizheng era of the Yuan Dynasty) and kept in the Qingjing Mosque, which was built in 1131 (the first year of the Shaoxing era of the Southern Song Dynasty) in the south of Quanzhou city. The Qingjing Mosque was destroyed at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, and the stone tablet was moved to the Shengyou Mosque in the east of the city. When the Shengyou Mosque was renovated in 1507 (the second year of the Zhengde era of the Ming Dynasty), the inscription was re-carved. Over time, the Shengyou Mosque was renamed the Qingjing Mosque.

The second tablet is the Record of the Renovation of Qingjing Mosque (Chongxiu Qingjing Si Beiji), written by Li Guangjin in 1609 (the 37th year of the Wanli era of the Ming Dynasty).

Rubbings of these two stone tablets are also on display at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum. The Stele for the Re-establishment of Qingjing Mosque mentions the construction process of the Song and Yuan Dynasty Qingjing Mosque, which no longer exists: In the first year of the Shaoxing era of the Song Dynasty, a man named Nazhibu Muzhiluding came to Quanzhou from Sanawi on a merchant ship and founded this mosque in the south of Quanzhou city. It mentions that 'Sanawi' is the ancient Iranian port of Siraf on the north shore of the Persian Gulf.











Turn left after entering the main gate to reach the entrance of the prayer hall. Above the entrance, inside a pointed arch, are three lines of white granite carvings featuring verses from the Quran (2:125, 127).

Inside the prayer hall, the qibla wall has seven pointed-arch niches. The middle one, the mihrab known as the 'Altar of Heaven' (Fengtiantan), is the largest. Above the niches is a 13.2-meter-long stone carving entirely covered in Quranic verses. In the old days, Hui Muslims in Quanzhou called the 27th night of Ramadan, the 'Night of Power' (Laylat al-Qadr), the 'Night of Twenty-Eight.' On this day, every Hui Muslim family would prepare food. That evening, they would light a pair of large red candles on both sides of the mihrab Altar of Heaven to symbolize that the revelation of the scripture is brilliant and glorious.

Archaeological excavations of the prayer hall foundation in 1987 uncovered Yuan dynasty floor tiles, drainage ditches, and wall foundations 1.6 meters below the surface in the southwest corner. A row of Southern Song dynasty floor tiles was also found in the northwest corner.

Since the roof of the prayer hall collapsed in the early Qing dynasty, it is now impossible to know what its original shape was. According to the Ming dynasty Wanli era 'Stele Record of the Renovation of Qingjing Mosque,' it states: 'There are twelve pillars, representing the twelve months.' Based on the stone pillars and column bases remaining in the hall today, it seems they could not have supported an overly massive dome.



















Mingshan Hall is full of tourists during the day.



















Inside the Mingshan Hall courtyard sits an exquisite Song Dynasty incense burner featuring a lotus flower rising from the water (chushui lianhua). The incense burner was originally inside the main hall of the Qingjing Mosque. It was moved to Mingshan Hall after the main hall's roof collapsed in the early Qing Dynasty.









The Qingjing Mosque also preserves a thousand-year-old stone well from the Song Dynasty.



Tonghuai Street, where the Qingjing Mosque is located, was the site of Quanzhou's foreign quarter (fanfang) during the Song and Yuan dynasties, and many people were buried nearby after they passed away. In the 1950s, three stone tombs with Sumeru-style pedestals (xumizuo) were discovered under a house at the intersection of Tonghuai Street and Jiangwu Lane. Many more of these stone tombs were unearthed between 1995 and 1998 when Tonghuai Street was widened. Haji Huang Runqiu, an imam at the Qingjing Mosque, collected some of these tombs and their components to keep inside the mosque. This is how the Sumeru-style stone tombs currently kept at the Qingjing Mosque came to be there.

The Sumeru-style stone tombs at the Qingjing Mosque range from two to five layers high. All the top stones are missing, and the bottom layers all feature six ruyi-shaped feet.







In the spring of 1983, the Qingjing Mosque underwent major renovations. Twelve Hui Muslim families who had lived inside the mosque since the Kangxi era moved out, and a collection of stone tablets was discovered in the walls and underground of the Mingshan Hall. When I visited in 2017, most of these stone carvings were displayed on the west side of the main hall. When I returned in 2024, most of them had been moved elsewhere for preservation.

The only tombstone currently kept inside the Qingjing Mosque was dug up from a garden belonging to a family named Pu in the late Qing Dynasty. It was moved to the mosque and built into the south side of the west wall of the Mingshan Hall. The tombstone is similar to the Yuan Dynasty Arabic tombstones at the Puhaddin Cemetery in Yangzhou and is considered one of the most exquisite ancient Arabic tombstones in Quanzhou. The person buried there was named Ahmed, who passed away in 1362.

The Pu family in Quanzhou are descendants of Pu Shougeng. After the Ming Dynasty, most of them left the faith or changed their surnames, and only one branch still lives on the former site of Pu Shougeng's residence. According to the Genealogy of the Pu Family in the South Gate of Quanzhou, Pu Shougeng had two sons, Shiwen and Shisi. Shisi was promoted to an official in the Hanlin Academy in 1284 and built the Baiguo Garden inside the south gate of Quanzhou city for his own enjoyment. Huayuantou has always been an old place name in the south of Quanzhou city.



Three plaques hang inside Mingshan Hall.

In the 23rd year of the Jiaqing reign of the Qing dynasty, Ma Jianji, the commander of the Fujian provincial land forces and general of Zhangzhou, dedicated the plaque reading "Ten Thousand Differences, One Origin" (Wanshu Yiben).

Ma Jianji was a Hui Muslim from Sichuan. While serving in Fujian during the Qing Jiaqing period, he renovated the Qingjing Mosque and the Lingshan Sacred Tomb, and he also carved an inscription on the Wind-Moving Rock at Lingshan.

In the 11th year of the Republic of China, Xiamen Superintendent Tang Kesan wrote the plaque reading "Recognize the Oneness of Allah" (Renzhu Duyi).

In the 13th year of the Republic of China, Tang Kesan, a recipient of the Second Class Order of the Golden Grain and former Xiamen Customs Superintendent, dedicated the plaque reading "Three Fears and Four Admonitions" (Sanwei Sizhen). The original plaques were destroyed between the 1960s and 1970s, and the ones currently on display are replicas.

Tang Kesan was a Hui Muslim from Shandong. He graduated from the Imperial University of Peking in the late Qing dynasty and became a social activist and educator during the Republican era. He served as the principal of Chengda Normal School and made significant contributions to the faith. In 1919, Tang Kesan became the Xiamen Customs Superintendent and donated funds to renovate the Qingjing Mosque during his tenure. In 1936, Tang Kesan appointed Imam Zhang Yuguang to lead the Qingjing Mosque. He started a religious study class and an adult literacy night school inside the mosque. In 1940, the Qingjing Mosque opened the Chengda Normal School Affiliated Primary School, later renamed the Qingzhen National School. It sent three groups of local Hui Muslim youth from Quanzhou to study at the Chengda Normal School in Guangxi.







The Qingjing Mosque keeps a white granite stele of the Ming Dynasty Yongle Imperial Edict. It is a copy of the edict issued by the Yongle Emperor, Zhu Di, to Mir Haji in 1407, the fifth year of the Yongle reign. The word 'Mir' refers to 'Amir,' meaning leader, and 'Haji' refers to someone who has made the pilgrimage to the Hejaz. Because of this, the actual name of the person who received the edict does not appear.

The original edict was found in 1956 at the home of Lan Xiaoyang, the hereditary imam of the Puhading Tomb in Yangzhou, and is now kept at the Cultural Palace of Nationalities in Beijing. This edict provided great protection for the faith, so the mosque in Fuzhou also made a copy of it, just like the one in Quanzhou.



I bought some magnets at the Quanzhou Liwu shop featuring the Qingjing Mosque and the Lingshan Sacred Tomb. I think the designs are beautiful and worth collecting. view all

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Summary: Islamic History Guide: Old Cairo - Bayn al-Qasrayn and a Thousand Years of Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear, natural English. The account focuses on Old Cairo, Islamic History, Bayn al-Qasrayn while preserving the names, places, food, photos, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our first article, 'Experiencing the Thousand-Year History of Old Cairo (Inside the North Gate)', we started at the North Gate of Cairo, built in the 11th century during the Fatimid dynasty, to enter the thousand-year-old historic city. We then traveled from north to south to visit 13 historic buildings, including:

The 11th-century Al-Hakim Mosque and the 12th-century Al-Aqmar Mosque from the Fatimid dynasty.

From the 14th-century Mamluk dynasty, we saw the gate of the Qawsun Caravanserai, the Khanqah of Baybars II, and the Beshtak Palace. From the 15th century, we visited the Qaitbay Caravanserai, the Madrasa of Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar, and the Maq'ad of Mamay al-Sayfi.

From the 17th-century Ottoman dynasty, we saw the Al-Suhaymi House, the Sabil-Kuttab of Qitas Bey, and the Sabil-Kuttab of Dhu al-Fiqar. We also visited the 18th-century Sabil-Kuttab of Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda and the 19th-century Mosque-Sabil of Sulayman Agha al-Silahdar.

In this article, we will continue south to visit eight magnificent building complexes from the Ayyubid and Mamluk dynasties in Old Cairo.

Bayn al-Qasrayn is located in the heart of Old Cairo, and its name literally means 'between the two palaces'. This was originally a square between two grand palaces built by the Fatimid dynasty in the 10th century. Later, the Ayyubid, Mamluk, and Ottoman dynasties built many structures here, and many of them are still standing today.

Al-Kamil Madrasa: 1225

Barquq Madrasa: 1386

An-Nasir Muhammad Madrasa: 1303

Qalawun Complex: 1285

As-Salih Ayyub Mausoleum: 1250

As-Salihia Madrasa: 1243

Al-Ashraf Complex: 1424

Al-Kamil Madrasa: 1225

The Al-Kamil Madrasa was built in 1225 by the Ayyubid Sultan Al-Kamil, who reigned from 1218 to 1238. During the 13th and 14th centuries, this place was a center for the study of Hadith in Egypt. A great famine hit Egypt between 1400 and 1404, causing the population to drop sharply and leading to the decline of the Al-Kamil Madrasa.

Al-Kamil was the nephew of Sultan Saladin and a key leader for Egypt during the Fifth and Sixth Crusades. During the Fifth Crusade, he opened the Nile dams to trade for eight years of peace. During the Sixth Crusade, he handed Jerusalem over to the Crusaders to trade for ten years of peace, which was the only Crusade resolved through diplomacy.

Today, the only part of the Ayyubid-era building left is the Iwan arch on the west side. The arch once featured plaster decorations in Kufic calligraphy, which are now kept at the Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo. The main hall at the entrance was built in 1752 by the Ottoman official Prince Hassan Sharawi.













Barquq Madrasa: 1386

South of the Kamil Madrasa stands the Barquq Madrasa, built in 1386 by Barquq, the first sultan of the Mamluk Burji dynasty (reigned 1382–1389 and 1390–1399). This was the first building of the Mamluk Burji dynasty (1382–1517) and holds great historical significance.

The architect of the madrasa was Ahmad al-Tuluni. Ahmad came from a family of carpenters and stonemasons. He was one of the few master architects to achieve great success in the late 14th century and was highly valued by the sultan.

The project supervisor for the madrasa was Emir Jarkas al-Khalili. He built the famous Khan el-Khalili market in Cairo, which is named after him.

The entire madrasa complex consists of a prayer hall, classrooms, a mausoleum, and a dervish lodge. It taught knowledge from the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. The main gate of the madrasa features a monumental arched entrance (Pishtaq), decorated with beautiful honeycomb-like carvings (Muqarnas) and calligraphy.

After entering the gate, a passageway leads to the courtyard (Sahn). In the middle of the courtyard is a fountain (Sabil), which was rebuilt in the late 19th century by the Committee for the Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art (Comité). The courtyard has an arched hall (iwan) on each of its four sides. The prayer hall on the east side is covered by a massive wooden roof, while the other three sides have stone domes.

The prayer hall ceiling features intricate painted designs, and the floor is decorated with colorful marble mosaics and panels. The pulpit (minbar) inside the prayer hall was a gift from the Mamluk Sultan Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq (reigned 1438–1453) in 1440. It is made of Aleppo pine and inlaid with ebony and ivory. Sadly, the pulpit was stolen twice in 2012 and 2013, and most of its decorative pieces are now missing.





















Beneath the dome of the Barquq Madrasa is a tomb chamber, but Sultan Barquq himself is not buried here. His daughter Fatima is buried in this space instead.

The following photos show the wood carvings and copper work on the main gate of the madrasa.

Barquq was born into a Circassian family living under the rule of the Golden Horde. After a battle, he was captured as a slave and sold to a bathhouse in Crimea. Later, he was sold again and moved to Egypt, where he became a Mamluk slave soldier. In 1377, civil unrest broke out in the Mamluk Sultanate. The young sultan who had just taken the throne held no real power. Barquq used this chance to strengthen his own position. In 1382, he seized the throne, ending the 132-year rule of the Kipchak Turkic Bahri dynasty and establishing the Circassian Caucasian Burji dynasty.

During his reign, Barquq joined forces with the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I to fight against the Timurid Empire and executed Timur's envoy. In 1394, Barquq and Timur fought a war near the Euphrates River, which ended with Timur leading his army in retreat.

















The days and nights at the Madrasa of Barquq are busy, as the lively Al-Mu'izz Street in Old Cairo sits right in front of the gate. This street is known as the main artery of Old Cairo. It connects the north gate to the south gate and serves as the main axis of the old city.





An-Nasir Muhammad Madrasa: 1303

To the south of the Madrasa of Barquq stands the Madrasa of Al-Nasir Muhammad, which was built between 1295 and 1303 by the Mamluk Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (who reigned from 1293-1294, 1299-1309, and 1310-1341).

Al-Nasir Muhammad was the youngest son of Sultan Qalawun. He took the throne at age 9, but he did not hold real power until his third period of rule at age 24. Under his rule, the Mamluk Sultanate reached its peak. The economy thrived at home, there were no major threats from abroad, and envoys from the Pope and the King of France visited his court with gifts. The reign of Nasir Muhammad is known as a high point for Egyptian culture, the greatest since the Ptolemaic Hellenistic period. He reopened the canal connecting Alexandria to the Nile, built many public buildings in Cairo, and renovated over thirty mosques.

The madrasa has a very unique Gothic gate. It was taken from a church in Acre after the Mamluk Sultanate completely defeated the Crusaders in 1291. The 1291 Siege of Acre is called the last battle of the Crusades, marking the end of the nearly 200-year-long Crusades. When the Siege of Acre ended, the Sultan ordered his army to tear down the city walls and churches, and this gate was transported back to Cairo.

The minaret of the madrasa has very complex stucco decorations. It is the only remaining all-stucco minaret in the old city of Cairo. The medallions and arched decorations follow the styles of the Fatimid and Ayyubid dynasties, while the floral patterns are a signature feature of the Mamluk period. The plaster decorations feature both Kufic and Thuluth calligraphy, and they are carved beautifully. Some historians believe that craftsmen from the Maghreb or Andalusia likely helped create these high-quality plaster carvings.

Like the Barquq Madrasa to the north, the Madrasa of an-Nasir Muhammad taught the four major schools of Islamic law: Hanafi, Hanbali, Shafi'i, and Maliki. The main hall contains the last plaster mihrab in Egypt, which features a unique egg-shaped protrusion similar to plaster carvings from Tabriz, Iran, during the Ilkhanate period. Because of this, historians suggest that this mihrab was likely made by craftsmen from Iran.



















Qalawun Complex: 1285

Further south is the most magnificent part of the Bayn al-Qasrayn area, the Qalawun complex. This complex includes a hospital, a madrasa, and a mausoleum. It was built in 1285 by the Mamluk Sultan Qalawun, who reigned from 1279 to 1290, and it is considered a masterpiece of Mamluk architecture.

Standing at the entrance of the building complex, the most eye-catching feature is the towering three-story minaret (bangke ta). The top of the minaret features a unique decoration called a papyrus cornice, which is how the Mamluk dynasty showed its legitimacy by looking back to the era of the pharaohs.

The facade of the entire complex is 67 meters long, similar in style to Gothic Crusader churches of the same period, with windows surrounded by pointed arch panels of different sizes and exquisite stucco calligraphy carvings underneath.



















The Mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun is known as a symbol of the power of the Mamluk dynasty and held great significance in 13th to 16th-century Egypt. This is one of the most magnificent imperial mausoleums I have ever visited, with an incredible wealth of stucco carvings, marble mosaics, and gilded woodwork. The tomb hall is supported by four towering stone columns decorated with Corinthian capitals. Above the capitals is an architrave decorated with vine patterns and stucco carvings in Thuluth calligraphy.

Sultan Qalawun was known as the King of Victory. In 1281, he led the Mamluk army to defeat the Mongol Ilkhanate forces commanded by Mongke Temur, the son of Hulagu Khan, in Homs, Syria. Mongke Temur was wounded and fled. The following year, the Ilkhan Tekuder converted to Islam and formed an alliance with the Mamluk Sultanate. The Battle of Homs is known as a major turning point in the Mongol westward expansion, marking the first time Mongol cavalry suffered a defeat in the Middle East.

After the threat from the Ilkhanate faded, Sultan Qalawun launched a series of wars against the Crusaders starting in 1285, eventually recapturing Tripoli, the largest city in northern Lebanon, in 1289.



















The mihrab in the mausoleum of Sultan Qalawun is considered the most exquisite mihrab of the Mamluk period. The design of the mihrab was inspired by Syria and was created using colorful marble mosaics.



















The madrasa of Sultan Qalawun consists of two iwan vaulted structures, with classrooms and a prayer hall on either side of the courtyard. The mihrab in the center of the prayer hall does not use the marble mosaics common in the Mamluk period, but instead features glass and mother-of-pearl mosaics. This is a throwback to the decorative art of the Umayyad Caliphate in Syria, showing how the Mamluks claimed to inherit the orthodoxy of the faith.



















As-Salih Ayyub Mausoleum: 1250

Across from the Qalawun complex stands the tomb built in 1250 by Shajar al-Durr, the widow of the Ayyubid Sultan As-Salih Ayyub (reigned 1240–49), for her husband.

Sultan As-Salih was the last major ruler of the Ayyubid dynasty, and he saw the rise of the Mamluk dynasty. Because he did not trust the local Egyptian emirs, he began buying large numbers of Kipchak Turks who had been enslaved after the Mongol invasion of Central Asia. These slaves soon became the core of the Ayyubid army and were known as Mamluks.

Sultan As-Salih also made great progress in the wars against the Crusaders. In 1244, he invited 10,000 Khwarazmian mercenary cavalrymen to sack and retake Jerusalem, which caused great panic among the surrounding regimes. A Christian army made up of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Teutonic Knights, the Knights Templar, the Knights Hospitaller, and the Order of Saint Lazarus formed an alliance with a Muslim army led by the emirs of Homs, Damascus, and Kerak to fight against as-Salih. The two armies met in a small village northeast of Gaza, where as-Salih's army and Khwarazmian mercenaries fought hard and eventually won. More than 5,000 Crusaders died in this battle, including the Grand Master and Marshal of the Knights Templar, as well as bishops from several cities.

After this battle, Christian power in the Holy Land collapsed, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was never again able to organize an effective military campaign. In 1245, the Pope called for a new Crusade. In 1249, the Seventh Crusade, led by King Louis IX of France, officially began. When as-Salih heard the news, he quickly returned to Egypt to set up camp, but he died of illness shortly after. After as-Salih died, his widow Shajar al-Durr decided to hide the news of the Sultan's death and ordered the Mamluk army to successfully defeat the Crusader attack.



















As-Salihia Madrasa: 1243

On the south side of the Sultan Salih Ayyub tomb stands the Salihiyya madrasa, which Salih built in 1242. Known as the 'Castle of Scholars,' the Salihiyya madrasa was the first in Cairo to teach the four major schools of Islamic law: Hanafi, Hanbali, Shafi'i, and Maliki. The north building of the school taught Shafi'i and Maliki law, while the south building taught Hanafi and Hanbali law.

The Salihiyya madrasa was abandoned after the Ottoman Empire conquered Egypt in the early 16th century. Today, most of it is a market, but the main gate and the minaret remain. The Salihiyya madrasa broke the Ayyubid tradition of only building minarets at Friday mosques by adding one to the gate of the school.







Al-Ashraf Complex: 1424

Continuing south, you will find the Al-Ashraf complex, built in 1424 by the Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Barsbay, who reigned from 1422 to 1438. The entire complex includes a main hall, a school, a tomb, and a prayer hall (daotang), featuring a dome with geometric carvings, which is an early example of decorative dome carving.

Barsbay was once a Mamluk slave of the Mamluk Sultan Barquq, and he later became the tutor for the young Sultan Muhammad. With the support of the governor of Damascus and other emirs, Barsbay deposed the young sultan in 1422 and took the throne as the new sultan.

The 16 years of Barsbay's rule were a time of relative safety and stability for the Mamluk Sultanate, with almost no war. He was very generous to the poor and to Sufis, and he carried out a series of administrative reforms.

Barsbay was known as the "Merchant Sultan" and placed great importance on the role of trade. He took a series of measures to strengthen control over the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, diverted Indian Ocean trade routes through Jeddah, and established state monopolies on sugar and pepper. He attracted merchants by lowering tariffs and monopolized most of the trade from the East, which angered many European powers. view all

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Summary: This Old Cairo travel account walks inside the northern gate of the historic city and follows its mosques, streets, gates, and layered Islamic history. It keeps the original place names, dates, buildings, and travel route without adding outside claims.

The history of Cairo as a city goes back over a thousand years. Back in the ancient Roman era, the Romans built the Babylon Fortress in the south of Cairo. After the Arabs took Cairo in 641 AD, they built the city of Fustat to the northeast of the Babylon Fortress. Over the next 300 years, Muslim rulers from different dynasties built several cities near Cairo, but none of them survived. In 969 AD, the Shia Fatimid dynasty conquered Egypt and spent four years building what is now the old city of Cairo. By this count, the old city of Cairo is now 1,055 years old.

The walls of old Cairo were started in 969 AD. They were first made of brick, then expanded with stone during the reign of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir Billah (reigned 1036-1094), and finally finished in 1087. The north gates of the old city, the Gate of Conquest (Bab al-Futuh) and the Gate of Victory (Bab al-Nasr), were both built during this time. In this article, I will take you through the north gate into old Cairo to experience its thousand-year history.

Gate of Conquest and Gate of Conquest: 1087

The Gate of Conquest is 22 meters high and has two round towers. The stone carving details may have been influenced by Syrian or Byzantine craftsmen. Above the arch, the surface is covered in diamond patterns containing rosettes and crosses. The parts of the towers that hang outward are carved with ram heads, which are symbols of Mars in the zodiac. Inside the gate, the dome and the rectangular space connect through a pendentive, which is a typical feature of Byzantine architecture.









The Gate of Victory is on the east side of the Gate of Conquest. Unlike the round towers of the Gate of Conquest, the towers of the Gate of Victory are square and contain guard rooms and living areas. There are shield carvings above the gate, which symbolize protecting the city from invasion. The shield features an Arabic inscription from its 1087 reconstruction, along with a Shia version of the Shahada that mentions Ali as the friend (wali) of Allah.











Al-Hakim Mosque: 1013.

Right next to the northern wall of Old Cairo stands the Al-Hakim Mosque, named after the sixth Fatimid caliph and the 16th imam of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (reigned 996-1021). The mosque was started in 990 by the fifth Fatimid caliph, al-Aziz Billah (reigned 975-996), and finished in 1013 by Caliph al-Hakim, making it 1,010 years old today.

The Al-Hakim Mosque was originally outside the walls of Cairo, but it was brought inside the city after the walls were rebuilt in 1087. The mosque's architectural style is similar to the Al-Azhar Mosque, but it is twice as large. The most striking features inside are the two minarets built on square brick bases. When the minarets were first built in 1003, they were separate structures, and they were only encased in brick in 1010. Some scholars suggest this might be linked to the ruler of Mecca rejecting Fatimid authority in 1010, which weakened the dynasty's power. The outer wall of the southern brick base has marble Kufic Arabic inscriptions from the Fatimid period, while the Kufic inscriptions on the northern base were moved to the outside of the city wall when it was incorporated into the northern wall of Old Cairo in 1087.

During the Crusades, the mosque was used as a prison by the Franks and later as a stable by Saladin. It was renovated during the Mamluk period in the 14th century but later fell into ruins for a long time. The mosque was renovated in 1808, and a small, colorful marble mihrab added during that time still survives today.

In the 20th century, the mosque served as a school until 1980, when the Dawoodi Bohra branch of Shia Islam carried out a massive reconstruction and renovation using white marble. Inside the main hall after the reconstruction, only the original stucco carvings, wooden beams, and scriptures were preserved. This restoration caused a lack of authenticity that sparked criticism and widespread discussion among scholars. In 2017, the Dawoodi Bohra community and the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities launched a new round of restoration, and it did not reopen until February 2023.



















Caravanserai of Qaitbay: 1481

Enter the old city of Cairo through the Gate of Victory (Bab al-Futuh) onto El-Gamaleya Street. The first thing you see is the caravanserai (wikala) of Sultan Qaitbay, which is currently under renovation. It was built in 1481 by Sultan Qaitbay (reigned 1468-1496) of the Mamluk dynasty. Qaitbay was one of the Mamluk sultans who sponsored the most architecture. Although the Mamluk dynasty was in decline, the situation remained relatively stable under his rule, and trade flourished.

Like other Mamluk caravanserais (wikala), this place not only provided short-term housing for passing caravans but also offered long-term rental apartment units (rab). It was used as apartments for hundreds of years until the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities began renovations in 2015. Work is still ongoing, and you can still see the wooden lattice windows (mashrabiya) facing the street.





Gate of the Caravanserai of Qawsun: 1341

Continuing south, you can see the remains of the gate of the caravanserai (wikala) of Emir Qawsun. This inn was built in 1341 by the famous Mamluk Emir Qawsun (1302-1342). It was used by soap and coffee merchants from Palestine in the 17th and 18th centuries, so it is also called the Soap Inn. The inn was demolished in 1960 to be rebuilt as a school, and only the gate remains. Above the gate is a stone carving of a pair of cups, because Emir Qawsun once served as the Sultan's cupbearer (saqi).

Qawsun was born on the Kipchak steppe under the rule of the Golden Horde and started out as a merchant. In 1320, Princess Tulunbay of the Golden Horde married the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Qawsun came to Cairo as part of her entourage and stayed in Cairo to sell leather goods. Qawsun was highly valued by the Sultan in Cairo and became his personal attendant. He then rose quickly through the ranks and married the Sultan's daughter. After the old Sultan died in 1341, Qawsun became the regent and held actual power over the Mamluk dynasty. However, he was defeated by political rivals a few months later and was killed in prison.





Continuing south along El-Gamaleya Street, you can see several more historical buildings.









Khanqah of Baybars II: 1310

On the east side of the middle section of El-Gamaleya Street stands the Khanqah of Baybars II, built in 1310. Baybars II was the 12th Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty and reigned for only one year, from 1309 to 1310. Baybars II served as vice-sultan from 1299 to 1309 and led the Mamluk Sultanate against the Ilkhanate in the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in Syria in 1303. This battle resulted in the total defeat of the Mongol army that had marched west into Syria. People say the Sultan led his captives from the Gate of Victory along El-Gamaleya Street into the old city of Cairo. Singers and dancers from all over came to celebrate, and the city was decorated with lights for days of festivities.



















The exquisite Islamic geometric patterns (Girih) on the gate of the Khanqah of Baybars II form complex designs through overlapping and interlacing.



It is very interesting that the threshold of the gate is made of stone blocks carved with ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, which is the first time I have ever seen this.



Bayt al-Suhaymi: 1648

Walking west from the Khanqah of Baybars II, you can see the Bayt al-Suhaymi on Darb al-Asfar Street. Built in 1648, it is the best-preserved private residence from the Ottoman period in old Cairo and is now open as a tourist site.

This residence is built around a courtyard (Sahn) with a small garden planted with palm trees in the center. You can see beautiful wooden lattice windows (Mashrabiya) in the courtyard. The south side of the mansion is the original 1648 structure, while the north side was expanded in 1797. It is now named after its last owner, Sheikh Muhammad Amin al-Suhaymi, who was a sheikh at Al-Azhar Mosque. In 1930, King Fuad I of Egypt provided funds to purchase the mansion and placed it under the management of the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Art Monuments.



















The ornate ceiling decorations of Bayt al-Suhaymi.



















The wood-carved furniture and colorful marble floors inside Bayt al-Suhaymi.



















Mosque-Sabil of Sulayman Agha al-Silahdar: 1839

Continuing west back to the main road of old Cairo, Al-Mu'izz Street, the first thing you see is the Mosque-Sabil of Sulayman Agha al-Silahdar, built in 1839. This fountain has a fancy Ottoman Baroque facade with floral patterns from the European Renaissance. The fountain is made of marble and was used to keep the water cool during the summer. Next to the fountain is a primary school (kuttab) that was once used to teach children how to read, write, and recite scripture. Here, we can also enter the huge underground water reservoir of the fountain, which is rarely seen in typical fountains.



















Aqmar Mosque: 1125-6

Walking south along Al-Muizz Street, we stop at the famous Fatimid-era Aqmar Mosque. The Aqmar Mosque was built in 1125-6 by order of the Fatimid vizier Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi. It sits at the northeast corner of the former Eastern Fatimid Palace, right next to the palace grounds.

The Aqmar Mosque holds a groundbreaking place in Egyptian architectural history. It is the first mosque where the entrance is flush with the street rather than aligned with the qibla wall, making it the first mosque planned according to Cairo's street layout. It is also the first mosque to feature complex stone carvings. The facade of the Aqmar Mosque is very luxurious. Above the entrance is a large medallion surrounded by a grille, with the names of the Prophet and Ali in the center and verses written around them. This type of decoration is unique in Cairo.

At the top of the left facade, there are carvings of a door and a window. The window on the left symbolizes the ceremonial grille that the Fatimids took back from the palace of their rivals, the Abbasids in Baghdad, serving as a symbol of victory. Inside the window is a lamp and a six-pointed star, based on the Shia hadith: 'The stars are a promise to the world, and it will not be submerged.' Below the window, there is a carving of a plant growing out of a flower pot, which comes from the Prophet's reference to Hasan and Husayn as 'my two aromatic herbs in the world.' The door in the upper right corner comes from the famous Shia hadith: 'I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate.'

Because it was near the Fatimid palace, the Aqmar Mosque did not originally have a minaret. One was not added until the end of the 14th century by the Mamluk dynasty, and the cylindrical top was rebuilt during the Ottoman era.

In 1993, the Dawoodi Bohra branch of the Shia community carried out a large-scale renovation of the Aqmar Mosque. Most of the historical elements inside the main hall were not preserved, which drew criticism.



















Madrasa of Emir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar: 1407

Turn back into al-Gamaleya Street along the alley south of the Aqmar Mosque to see the Madrasa of Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar, built in 1407 by the Mamluk general Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar. Jamal al-Din built many structures in Cairo, and al-Gamaleya Street is named after him.

This is a classic cruciform madrasa structure with an open courtyard in the center and an iwan (arched hall) on each of the four sides, each used to teach one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The decoration inside the main hall is very ornate, as People say Jamal al-Din modeled it after Mamluk palace designs and invested a large amount of money and materials. Jamal al-Din was executed just four years after the mosque was completed. The Sultan wanted to demolish the site, but a judge (Qadi) stopped him, and in the end, only Jamal al-Din's name was removed.

After the Ottoman Empire conquered Istanbul in 1517, many marble slabs from the inner walls of the madrasa were taken to Istanbul. The building was damaged again in the 1992 earthquake and was not fully restored until 2002.



















Dhu al-Fiqar Fountain-Primary School (Sabil-Kuttab): 1673

Opposite the Madrasa of Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar is the Ottoman-era Dhu al-Fiqar Sabil-Kuttab, built in 1673 by Dhu al-Fiqar Katkhuda Mustahfizan and his brother Muhammad. This Sabil-Kuttab consists of two prominent wooden awnings, and the caravanserai (wikala) behind it was once a center for the coffee trade in 18th-century Cairo.





Maq’ad Mamay al-Sayfi Palace: 1496

Continue south to the Maq’ad Mamay al-Sayfi Palace on Beet Al Qadi Street, built in 1496 by the Mamluk general Sayf al-Din Mamay ibn Khadad, who served as a Mamluk diplomat to the Ottoman Empire in the early 1490s.

During the Ottoman period, this place served as a high court and the residence of judges, so it is also called Bayt al-Qadi. In the late 19th century, Egypt's ruler Isma'il Pasha (reigned 1863-79) carried out urban renewal in Cairo, and most of the palace was demolished, leaving only a large house used for summer retreats. The house consists of an upper pavilion and a lower storage room. The lotus capitals of the pavilion are the only example in Islamic architecture in Cairo that directly uses architectural forms from the ancient Egyptian pharaonic era. The interior of the pavilion has complex decorations and calligraphy, but unfortunately, it was not open when we visited.







Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda Sabil-Kuttab: 1744

Walk south from the Aqmar Mosque to see the Sabil-Kuttab of Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda, a fountain-school built in 1744 during the Ottoman era. It is a landmark building on Al-Muizz Street, the main road in Old Cairo. During the Mamluk and Ottoman dynasties, these fountain-schools were very common in Cairo. The ground floor fountain (sabil) provided free drinking water to passersby, while the second floor school (kuttab) taught children how to read and write.

Although this fountain-school was built in the Mamluk style, it incorporates many Ottoman architectural elements. The builder, Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda, was a high-ranking Mamluk emir officer known for his noble lifestyle and patronage of the arts. He renovated or built 33 structures in Cairo.















Across from the Khanqah of Baybars II stands the Qitas Bey fountain-school (sabil-kuttab), built in 1630 during the Ottoman period. In the Mamluk and Ottoman eras, most fountain-schools in the old city of Egypt were built on street corners.





Bashtak Palace: 1334-1339.

Southeast of the Sabil-Kuttab of Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda is the Mamluk-era Bashtak Palace (Qasr Bashtak), built between 1334 and 1339 by the Mamluk emir and general Sayf al-Din Bashtak al-Nasiri. Bashtak was a powerful Mamluk emir who married the daughter of a Mamluk sultan and held important positions in the royal court. He chose a section of the former Fatimid eastern palace to build his own palace and stables, which became a model of Mamluk architecture.

Only a portion of the Bashtak Palace remains today, the most important part being the reception hall (qa'a). The hall features a wooden paneled ceiling, stained glass, and an inlaid marble fountain. The upper level has wooden lattice windows (mashrabiyya), all of which are typical architectural styles of the Mamluk period. view all

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Four 14th-century stained glass oil lamps from the Mamluk era usually hang from the prayer hall ceiling by iron chains and feature beautiful Thuluth Arabic calligraphy. These four lamps come from the Sultan Hassan Madrasa, the Qalawun Madrasa, and the Al-Zahir Barquq Madrasa in Cairo. In the middle sits a Mamluk-era copper candlestick, which was typically placed on both sides of the mihrab prayer niche.











Copper basins and ewers with silver inlay from the Mamluk period (1250-1517) represent a cleaning tradition that has continued in Egypt since the time of the Pharaohs.







Wood carving and inlay craftsmanship from the Mamluk period.

The Abu Bakr bin Mazhar mosque is located in El Gamaliya in northeastern Egypt and was built in 1479 by the Mamluk vizier Abu Bakr bin Mazhar. In 2018, the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization moved the mosque's exquisite minbar pulpit inside for display, representing the craft heritage of the Mamluk dynasty. The entire minbar is made of ebony and peach wood, inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl, and carved with floral, star, and geometric patterns, as well as Kufic calligraphy.

13th to 14th-century ivory-inlaid wooden doors featuring complex geometric decorations.



















Mamluk-era copper carving includes 14th-century copper basins and bowls, as well as a copper table with silver inlay from the time of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (1285-1341), which features beautiful floral vine patterns, star-shaped geometric designs, and Thuluth calligraphy carvings.



















Quran cases from the Mamluk dynasty.

The first Quran case is made of wood wrapped in copper with gold and silver inlay, carved with both Thuluth and Kufic calligraphy, and is said to have belonged to the Mamluk Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (1285-1341).









The second Quran case is made of wood and carved with Thuluth calligraphy that mentions the name of the Mamluk Sultan Qansuh al-Ghuri (1501-1516), so it was likely made between 1503 and 1504 during the construction of the al-Ghuri mosque and madrasa in Cairo.









An 11th-century Fatimid dynasty lusterware plate, which is a pottery technique where a white glaze is applied and fired, then painted with a mixture of copper and silver oxides and fired a second time. The pottery center in Egypt at that time was in the old city of Fustat, where the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization is now located.

Compared to the Abbasid dynasty, which had Baghdad as its pottery center, the figures on Fatimid lusterware are more vivid and the decorative patterns are more diverse, especially the floral Kufic Arabic calligraphy featuring vine motifs.







Starting with the Mamluk dynasty in the 13th century, Egyptian rulers had a tradition of sending a ceremonial palanquin (Mahmal) and the Kaaba cover (Kiswa) to the Sacred Mosque in Mecca before the annual Hajj. This ceremony was known as al-Mahmal. Camels carried the Mahmal, which featured intricate embroidery including Quranic verses and the Sultan's monogram. Inside, it held two silver-plated cases containing the Quran. A grand Hajj procession followed the Mahmal, with the Kaaba cover also carried by camels and guarded by heavily armed soldiers. When the procession arrived in Mecca, crowds gathered to watch. Mahmal palanquins from various Muslim countries would compete for the best spots in front of the Kaaba. After the Hajj ended, the Mahmal returned home carrying blessings. Parents would bring their children to touch the Mahmal to seek these blessings. The Mahmal palanquin finally retired from history after the Republic of Egypt was established in 1952.

The tradition of covering the Kaaba began in the pre-Islamic era. The Prophet Muhammad first covered the Kaaba with a cloth in 630. Starting in the era of Caliph Umar, Egypt provided the Kaaba cover. At first, it was placed directly over the old cover each year. Beginning in 777 during the Abbasid dynasty, the old cover was removed before the new one was put on. On the 9th day of the month of Hajj each year, the Prince of Mecca covers the Kaaba. The old cover is cut into small pieces and given away as gifts.

For over a century starting in 1817, the Mahmal and the Kaaba cover were produced at the Dar al-Kiswa textile workshop in Cairo, founded by Ottoman governor Muhammad Ali. In 1962, tensions between Egypt and Saudi Arabia over the North Yemen Civil War led Mecca to return a Kaaba cover made in Cairo. Since then, the covers have all been produced in Mecca. According to memories, craftsmen at Dar al-Kiswa would bathe and wash their hands with rose water before starting work. They would then recite the Al-Fatiha chapter. The entire production process took a full year.

The first one is the Mahmal sent by King Farouk I of Egypt in 1936.









The second one is the Mahmal and Kaaba cover sent by King Farouk I in 1940.





The third one is the last Kaaba cover sent by Egypt to Mecca in 1961.







This is the key to the Kaaba and its silk storage bag from the 19th-century Ottoman period, featuring Arabic embroidery in gold and silver thread.













Because Egypt's textile industry was very famous even in the pre-Islamic era, the Kaaba cover has been provided by Egypt since the time of Caliph Umar. The earliest Kaaba covers were embroidered white linen woven by Coptic Christians in Egypt, known as qubati. During the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, both silk and linen were used to make the Kaaba covers.

During the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, the Caliphs funded many textile workshops across Egypt. Besides making Kaaba covers, many workshops produced goods for the public, known as Al-Tiraz. The earliest recorded Al-Tiraz workshop dates back to the reign of the fifth Umayyad Caliph, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (reigned 685-705). This was when Arabic calligraphy first appeared in textile decorations. Textile decorations from this period were mostly simple and used dark colors, influenced by Byzantine, Sassanid, and Egyptian Coptic art.

















Between 868 and 905, Ahmad ibn Tulun, a Turkic governor of Egypt under the Abbasid dynasty, established the Tulunid dynasty (Tulunids) in Egypt and Syria. Ibn Tulun carried out major economic reforms that helped the linen and wool textile industries thrive. During this time, Egypt competed fiercely as a textile hub with Baghdad, the Abbasid capital. Egypt often produced higher quality and better craftsmanship, which showed in the precious fabrics like mattresses and curtains used by Tulunid rulers and nobles.









Textiles from the Fatimid dynasty (969-1171) were popular for their high quality, delicate designs, and rich decorations. The most precious silks were used to decorate the Caliph's palace, while other fine fabrics were used to make turbans, hats, and belts. The most striking feature of Fatimid textiles was the use of Kufic Arabic calligraphy, which featured the Caliph's name and titles in repeating and alternating floral patterns. Various plant, animal, and geometric patterns also saw significant development.













Although the Ayyubid dynasty (1171-1250) was short, Egypt's textile industry continued to grow. It was especially famous for soft and thin linen called al-Shoroub, produced in Tinnis and Alexandria. With mass production, new techniques were introduced, including weaving gold, silver, and colored silk threads into the warp and weft, layering wool or cotton between two layers of fabric, and embroidering on silk threads. Ayyubid textile decorations continued to use Arabic calligraphy, geometric shapes, and floral and animal patterns, usually in black and blue.









During the Mamluk dynasty (1250-1517), the Sultan's court had a huge demand for textiles, which further boosted the industry. During this period, Egypt finally mastered wax-resist dyeing. Wax prevented dye from soaking into the fabric, and after boiling to remove the wax, it created complex, multi-colored patterns. Another technique of layering fabric to create bright, colorful appliqué is still used today.



During the Ottoman period (1517-1805), the textile industry suffered because Egypt was no longer the center of the empire. At the same time, textiles from other parts of the Ottoman Empire began to appear in Egyptian markets, including brocade (jin), satin brocade (duanjin), and velvet, all decorated with floral patterns in the Ottoman style. view all

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I recently visited the Sayyida Khawla Shrine, a Shia holy site in Baalbek, which is the headquarters of Hezbollah in Lebanon and one of the most important Shia centers in the country. The tomb was first built in 680, and the current structure dates back to its reconstruction in 1656.

There are thick walls at the entrance of the tomb, along with armed guards. Women are checked separately, but the guards are friendly to foreign tourists. During the security check, they asked Zainab if she was from Iran or Pakistan. When she said she was from China, the guard was very surprised, said "Made in China" in English, and let her in without checking.

Sayyida Khawla was the daughter of Imam Hussein and the great-granddaughter of the Prophet Muhammad. An ancient cypress tree inside the tomb is said to have been planted by the fourth Shia Imam, Ali Zayn al-Abidin (659-712). Legend says that after Imam Hussein was martyred in Karbala on the day of Ashura in 680, his female relatives were captured and taken to Damascus with the Umayyad caravan. During the long and difficult journey, Sayyida Khawla fell from a camel while passing through Baalbek and died from her injuries.



















In the street scenes of Baalbek, mosques and Roman temples exist side by side. Following online advice, I did not take any photos related to Hezbollah. Besides the Shia community, there are also Christians and Sunnis here. There is even a mosque built during the Umayyad dynasty that is still used by Sunnis today, and I will post photos of this Umayyad mosque later.

During the 2006 Lebanon War, Baalbek was a major target for the Israeli military and was hit by over 70 bombs, which damaged the ancient Roman ruins.













We had lunch in Baalbek, and you can see the ruins of the Roman temple from the restaurant's rooftop terrace.

We ordered Sajiye stew, Fokhara rice, Ayran yogurt drink, and the local Lebanese meat pie called Sfeha. Sfeha from Baalbek is very famous. Sfeha is filled with lamb, tomatoes, and onions. The lamb has a perfect balance of fat and lean meat, ground very finely, and seasoned with cinnamon and allspice. Sajiye and Fokhara are actually names of cookware. Sajiye refers to an iron pot, while Fokhara refers to a clay pot. Both dishes are sealed with a flatbread called Saj while cooking. The rice in the Bukhara clay pot (fokhara) is cooked with olive oil, caramelized onions, and spices that turn it yellow, and it tastes great. view all

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Summary: Mardin stands on a rocky slope above the Mesopotamian plain and is known for stone architecture, old mosques, churches, and layered local history. This travel account focuses on the city historic sites, religious buildings, and street-level observations in the original order.

In the previous article, 'Mardin: A Rocky Mountain City Where Kurds, Arabs, and Assyrians Live Together - Food and Lodging,' we visited the ancient city of Mardin in southeastern Turkey, near the borders of Syria and Iraq, and ate Kurdish and Assyrian food. In this article, I will continue to share the ancient buildings in the old city of Mardin, which is famous for its architecture from the Artuqid dynasty (12th-14th centuries).

The Artuqid dynasty was an Oghuz Turkic tribal dynasty that ruled southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, and northern Syria from the 12th to the 14th century, named after the Seljuk commander Artuk Beg. Artuk Beg's sons began ruling Mardin in 1101, and for the next 300 years, Mardin served as the capital of the Mardin branch of the Artuqid dynasty. After the 13th century, the Artuqid dynasty became a vassal state of the Ilkhanate and the Timurid Empire, until it was destroyed by the Kara Koyunlu in 1409.

Great Mosque of Mardin

The Great Mosque of Mardin (Mardin Ulu Camii) dates back to the 10th century. It is one of the earliest mosques in the Anatolia region and set the foundation for later Mardin architectural styles. The mosque currently houses 16 stone inscriptions from the Seljuk, Artuqid, Kara Koyunlu, and Ottoman periods, spanning nearly a thousand years.

The mosque once had two minarets, but only the eastern one remains today. The inscription at its base shows it was built in 1176 and is a classic example of Artuqid architecture.

The Great Mosque has been renovated many times throughout history. Most of what we see today is from the Ottoman-era renovation in 1889, but it still keeps its early architectural style.



















Next to the mihrab in the Great Mosque of Mardin, there is a preserved beard hair of the Prophet (Sakal-i Serifi). It is said to have been cut by the Prophet's favorite barber in the presence of Abu Bakr, Ali, and others.













Zinciriye Madrasa

Zinciriye Madrasa was built in 1385 and is another historic Artuqid-era building in the old city of Mardin. Zinciriye Madrasa is actually a complex (külliye) consisting of a madrasa, a mosque, a tomb, and two courtyards. The mosque and the tomb each have a fluted dome, matching the style of the dome at the Great Mosque of Mardin.

At the southeast corner of the madrasa is a 12-meter-high gate featuring an exquisite stalactite vault (muqarnas), decorated with geometric vine patterns and Kufic and Thuluth calligraphy.



















There is a fountain pool in the center of the Zinciriye Madrasa courtyard. In Sufi philosophy, the flow of water symbolizes a person's journey from this life to the afterlife, and this pool is a physical representation of that symbol. The fountain's source symbolizes birth, then flows through stages representing infancy, childhood, and youth. The long water channel symbolizes entering old age, and the final pool represents the arrival of the Day of Judgment.







The area around the fountain and the main hall of the mosque are decorated with classic two-toned brickwork known as ablaq. This brick decoration likely originated in the Syrian region under the Eastern Roman Empire. Muslim craftsmen later used it in early Islamic buildings like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, and the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Because the Syrian region has plenty of black basalt and white limestone, most local ablaq is black and white. The Mardin region mostly has beige limestone, so the ablaq there is beige and black.













Mardin Castle

You can clearly see the remaining walls of Mardin Castle from the Zinciriye Madrasa. Mardin Castle is thought to be 3,000 years old, dating back to the Babylonian period. The existing structures were built between the 10th-century Hamdanid dynasty (al-Hamdaniyyun) and the Artuqid dynasty from the 11th to 13th centuries. The Hamdanid dynasty was an Arab tribal dynasty from Mesopotamia. Ottoman Sultan Selim III, who reigned from 1789 to 1807, repaired it, but it fell into disrepair by the early 20th century.

Today, a military radar station occupies the site. The city of Mardin has repeatedly asked the military to leave and open it to tourism. In 2015, former Mardin mayor Ahmet Turk helped launch a campaign called 'Mardin Castle belongs to the people of Mardin' to demand the castle be opened to visitors, but it has not succeeded yet.











The Mardin Museum holds a stone carving from 1302, found at the gate of Mardin Castle during the Artuqid period. It records the income of the foundation (waqf) that supported the castle's mosque, making it a very precious document.



Abdullatif Mosque

I caught the Dhuhr prayer (namaz) at Abdullatif Mosque. Abdullatif Mosque, also called Latifiye Mosque, was started in 1371 by the Artuqid minister Abdullatif. The minaret was built in 1845 by the Ottoman governor of Mosul, Muhammad Pasha.

The mosque's gate still looks as it did when it was built in 1371 and is considered the last classic work of the Artuqid dynasty. Below the exquisite stalactite-style vaulted ceiling (muqarnas), the area is decorated with Kufic and Thuluth calligraphy alongside various geometric patterns.



















The ablution pool in the outer courtyard of the Abdullatif mosque, the open-air space prepared for dhikr, the fountain pool in the inner courtyard, and the original structural elements on the pulpit (minbar) and the walls of the main prayer hall.



















Kasimiye Madrasa

Kasimiye Madrasa, also known as Kasim Pasha Madrasa, sits on a hillside in the western suburbs of the old city of Mardin. Construction began under Al-Zahir Majd al-Din 'Isā (reigned 1376–1407), the second-to-last sultan of the Artuqid dynasty, but it was left unfinished due to the invasion of the Timurid Empire. It was finally completed at the end of the 15th century by the Black Sheep Turkmen (Qara Qoyunlu) sultan Kasim ibn Cihangir (reigned 1487–1507).

Kasimiye Madrasa was the most powerful school in Mardin's history. It taught not only religious studies but also medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and other sciences. The madrasa stayed open until 1924, when all madrasas in Turkey were closed. Today, it is a famous tourist spot in Mardin. It attracts many visitors and is a beautiful place where many young couples come to take wedding photos.

The madrasa has a rectangular structure with a vaulted dome on each side—one for the mosque and one for the tomb. In the middle is a courtyard surrounded by two floors of classrooms. The central fountain pool is the classic Mardin "Fountain of Life," which symbolizes the journey from birth through childhood, youth, and old age, finally reaching the Day of Judgment. The classroom doors are only one meter high. This design forces students to bow respectfully to their teachers as they enter.



















Old photos of Kasimiye Madrasa and the view overlooking the Mesopotamian plains from the school.



















Seyh Cabuk Mosque

Seyh Cabuk Mosque is believed to have been built during the 15th-century Black Sheep Turkmen (Qara Qoyunlu) period and was renovated in the 19th century. Legend says that Abdullah bin Anas al-Juhayni, a companion of the Prophet Muhammad, was sent to Constantinople to deliver a letter. He passed away in Mardin on his return journey and was buried here, and the mosque was built because of his tomb.













Sehidiye Mosque

Sehidiye Mosque was ordered to be built in 1214 by the Artuqid sultan Melik Nasreddin Aslan. The current minaret was rebuilt in 1914 by the Armenian architect Serkis Lole in an eclectic style, which is very characteristic of that era.



















Dinari Pamuk Mosque

While eating barbecue in the evening, I heard the adhan, so the barbecue shop owner and I both stepped out to pray Maghrib at the nearby Dinari Pamuk mosque. It is a small mosque, but it is very crowded because it sits on the main road of the old city.

Dinari Pamuk mosque was reportedly built in the 11th century by Sheikh Mehmet Dinari on the site of a Byzantine church, while the current structure dates back to the Artuqid dynasty in 1332.













Other ancient buildings from the Artuqid dynasty.

There are many more historical sites in the old city of Mardin, but I could not visit them all this time due to limited. Visually, the stone houses made of beige limestone are very different from the red-roofed wooden houses common in the Ottoman old cities of central and western Turkey, making them quite rare in Turkey and offering a unique experience.

Finally, I will share a few Artuqid-era historical sites I passed while walking in the early morning, though it is a pity I arrived too early to go inside.

The first is the Savurkapi bathhouse, built in 1176.



The second is the Hatuniye Madrasa, built between 1176 and 1184, which houses the footprint of the Prophet.







The third is the Savur Kapi Madrasa, built in the 13th to 14th centuries.





The fourth is the Melik Mahmut mosque, built in 1362. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Muslim Dynasty Travel Project: Historic Islamic Cities Across Eurasia is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Between 2017 and 2019, I used my vacations to visit 10 countries and regions: Russia, Crimea (Russian-occupied), Uzbekistan, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Xinjiang, China. The account keeps its focus on Muslim Dynasties, Islamic History, Travel Project while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Between 2017 and 2019, I used my vacations to visit 10 countries and regions: Russia, Crimea (Russian-occupied), Uzbekistan, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Xinjiang, China. I visited 35 ancient Muslim cities, covering 24 Muslim dynasties from the 11th to the 20th century. Afterward, I used my spare time to look up information and gradually put together some articles. I had already made plans for my 2020 visits, but they were suddenly interrupted. From being unable to leave the country to being unable to leave Beijing, my journey had to pause.

So far, I have finished sharing all 35 ancient cities. I am making a directory here to make it easier to look them up later. Also, my other project, Exploring and Eating in Muslim Communities, is still going on. During the year I could not leave Beijing, I started focusing on local historical sites of Hui Muslims and Islam in Beijing and visited some of them.

Eastern Europe: Volga Bulgaria (Bulgar Khanate), Golden Horde, Crimean Khanate, and Kazan Khanate.

The first article, 'Bulgar: A Thousand-Year-Old Capital on the Volga,' introduces the ancient city of Bulgar in Tatarstan, Russia. It was the capital of Volga Bulgaria in the 10th and 11th centuries and adopted Islam in 922. The Mongol army destroyed Bulgar in the 13th century, but it was soon rebuilt into an important economic, commercial, cultural, and religious center for the Golden Horde. Influenced by the Bulgar people, the Mongol rulers of the Golden Horde also began to follow Islam, building a series of mosques, minarets, and Muslim tombs in the city. Along with secular palaces and bathhouses, most of the ruins remaining in Bulgar today date back to this period. After the Golden Horde declined, the ancient city of Bulgar remained a Muslim religious center until the mid-16th century. The ancient city fell into complete decline after Ivan the Terrible of Russia conquered the Khanate of Kazan in 1552.



The second article, 'Chufut-Kale: The Founding Capital of the Crimean Khanate,' introduces the thousand-year-old Crimean city of Chufut-Kale. Chufut-Kale was first built by the Byzantines in the 5th to 6th centuries and was later inhabited by the Christian Alans. In 1299, the Golden Horde captured the Jewish fortress, and Tatar Muslims and Karaite Jews began living inside. In 1441, Hacı Giray, a descendant of Genghis Khan, minted coins with his name at the fortress, officially established the Crimean Khanate, and built many structures there. After the fortress well dried up in the mid-17th century, all the Tatars left, leaving only the Karaite Jews behind. From then on, Crimean Tatars began calling it the Jewish fortress. After the 19th century, the Karaite Jews also left, and the fortress eventually fell into ruins.



The third article, 'The Former Capital of the Crimean Khanate: Bakhchysarai,' explains that around 1500, Crimean Khan Meñli Giray built a new capital called Salachik in the valley west of the Jewish fortress. Salachik once had a complex of buildings including a palace, a court, baths, and a mosque, but now only a madrasa and the tomb of the founding Khan, Hacı Giray, remain. In 1532, Meñli Giray's son, Sahib Giray, built a new capital, Bakhchysarai, in the valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, Bakhchysarai served as the capital of the Crimean Khanate, where successive Khans built palaces and various mosque structures. To the west of Bakhchisaray lies Eski Yurt, a large trading town that was already thriving during the Golden Horde era. It preserves several 14th to 16th-century tombs, including that of the Crimean Khan Mehmed II Giray.



The fourth chapter, 'Kazan Kremlin and the National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan,' explains that Kazan started as a fortress for the Volga Bulgaria. After it joined the Golden Horde in the 13th century, it quickly became a central city in the middle reaches of the Volga River. After the Golden Horde collapsed in the 15th century, the Khanate of Kazan (1438–1552) was established. As the capital, Kazan's population grew rapidly. Many homes and public buildings were built, including the Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible of Russia attacked Kazan and destroyed the Khanate. He later ordered the Kazan Kremlin to be built on the site of the old fortress. The mosques, the Khan's palace, and the tombs were first used as armories and ammunition depots, but they were all eventually torn down in the 18th century. In 1977, hydraulic engineers accidentally dug up the tombs of the Kazan Khans while laying rainwater pipes at the Kazan Kremlin. It took until May 2017, after persistent efforts, to rebury the two Khans that were unearthed.



Uzbekistan: Timurid Empire, Khanate of Bukhara

The first article, 'Timur's Hometown: Shahrisabz,' introduces the ancient Sogdian city of Kesh, south of Samarkand. After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia in 1225, it became part of the Chagatai Khanate and was ruled by the Barlas tribe. In 1346, the last khan of the Chagatai Khanate was killed, and the khanate fell into chaos. Emir Timur, a noble from the Barlas tribe in Kesh, gradually united the Transoxiana region and established the vast Timurid Empire. After founding the Timurid Empire, Timur renamed his hometown Kesh to Shahrisabz. He built a massive palace and family mausoleum there, and many of these ruins still stand today. After Timur passed away, his grandson Ulugh Beg continued to develop Shahrisabz, building a grand mosque and new tombs in the city.



The second article, 'Timur's Capital: Samarkand,' explains that in 1370, Emperor Timur established the Timurid Empire on the ruins of the Chagatai Khanate and made Samarkand his capital. Over the next 35 years, Timur brought in great craftsmen, artists, and architects from across his empire to rebuild Samarkand, making it the undisputed center of Central Asia. During Timur's reign, Samarkand's population exceeded 150,000. Important landmarks like the Shah-i-Zinda necropolis and the Bibi-Khanym mosque remain preserved today. Between 1409 and 1449, for 40 years, Samarkand continued to grow as a city of science and culture under the rule of Timur's grandson, Ulugh Beg. Besides the Gur-e-Amir Mausoleum built for Emperor Timur, the Ulugh Beg Madrasah and the Ulugh Beg Observatory are both important pieces of evidence.



The third article, 'Bukhara: Capital of the Bukhara Khanate,' explains that in the early 16th century, Muhammad Shaybani led the Uzbek people from the northern Central Asian steppes to overthrow the Timurid dynasty in Transoxiana. He established the Shaybanid dynasty, and in 1533, the dynasty moved its capital to Bukhara. The Shaybanid dynasty line ended in 1598, and power passed to the Janid Dynasty, which continued to rule from Bukhara until 1785. Later generations refer to the Shaybanid and Janid dynasties collectively as the Bukhara Khanate. Bukhara served as the capital of the Bukhara Khanate for 252 years, from 1533 to 1785, and many buildings from that time still stand today. The most abundant architecture comes from the reign of Abdullah Khan II, who ruled Bukhara from 1557 to 1598, which was also the peak of the Bukhara Khanate's power.



The fourth article, 'Tashkent: An Ancient City in Central Asia,' describes how Tashkent's population and size gradually recovered during the 14th to 16th centuries under the Timurid and Shaybanid dynasties, becoming a commercial and cultural hub along the Silk Road. Most of the historical buildings still found in Tashkent today were built during this period. During the chaos of the late Timurid dynasty, Tashkent briefly served as the capital of the Moghulistan Khanate, and the tomb of Yunus Khan still stands there today. Tashkent was incorporated into the Kazakh Khanate between the 17th and 18th centuries and became its capital in the 18th century. Today, Tashkent still preserves the tomb of a Kazakh hero.



Iran: Seljuk Empire, Qajar Dynasty

The first article, 'Rey: The Seljuk Ancient Capital Outside Tehran,' introduces the ancient city of Rey in the southern suburbs of Tehran. In the 9th century, the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine was built in Rey, making it an important religious site in Iran. In 1043, Tughril Beg, the founder of the Seljuk Empire, made Rey the capital of the empire and carried out large-scale reconstruction of the ancient city. Under the rule of the Seljuk Empire, Rey reached its peak, featuring a massive market and a very prosperous trade scene. Import and export trade, mainly in silk, connected the entire Eurasian continent. Rayy was the center for making painted pottery in Iran at the time, and Rayy-style painted pottery was an important Iranian handicraft during this period. After the Mongol army invaded Iran in 1220, Rayy became a ghost town and was finally abandoned in the 16th century.



The second article, 'Palaces of the Qajar Dynasty in Iran: Golestan Palace (Kākh-e Golestān),' introduces how Golestan Palace was first called the Tehran Citadel (Arg) and was originally built during the Persian Safavid Dynasty. After Agha Mohammad Khan (reigned 1789-1797) of the Qajar Dynasty made Tehran the capital, he officially rebuilt the Tehran Citadel into Golestan Palace. Between 1925 and 1945, Reza Shah (reigned 1925-1941) of the Pahlavi Dynasty ordered the demolition of most of the buildings in Golestan Palace for modern urban construction, and only a portion remains today.



Azerbaijan: Shirvanshah Dynasty

The article 'Historical Buildings in the Old City of Baku, Azerbaijan' introduces the Shirvanshah Dynasty, established in Azerbaijan by the descendants of an Arab general, which moved its capital to Baku in 1191. Baku remained the capital of the Shirvanshah Dynasty for over 300 years after that. Baku held a key position in ancient Eurasian trade. It served as a major hub in the trade network, where many merchants from India and Central Asia stopped to transfer goods. Today, the old city preserves the palace complex from the Shirvanshah dynasty, relatively intact ancient city walls, over a dozen ancient mosques built between the 11th and 18th centuries, four large caravanserais that witnessed ancient trade, and several traditional bathhouses. It is well worth a visit.



Turkey: Sultanate of Rum, Ottoman Empire

The first article, 'Konya: The Last Capital of the Seljuk Empire,' introduces the Seljuk Turks. They came from the Central Asian steppes, were deeply influenced by Persian culture, established the Sultanate of Rum in Asia Minor in 1077, and made Konya their capital in 1097. After the Mongols invaded Central Asia and Persia in the early 13th century, many Turks and Persians fled to Konya. Many were educated intellectuals or skilled craftsmen, including the famous poet Rumi. In 1243, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was defeated by the Mongol Empire and became a vassal state. However, Konya remained the capital of the sultanate until 1328. People lived in peace, and many existing Seljuk buildings were constructed during this period. After the Seljuk Empire fell, Konya became the final center of Seljuk 'Turko-Persian' culture. Seljuk culture is most famous for its tiles and stone carvings featuring human and animal figures, which are not found in later Turkish culture.



The second article, 'The Birth of the Ottoman Empire—Bursa,' explains how the Ottomans broke away from the Sultanate of Rum in the late 13th century and officially made Bursa their capital in 1326. From then on, the Ottomans used Bursa as a base to grow into the massive Ottoman Empire over the next hundred years. Bursa stands as the best witness to the birth of the Ottoman Empire. In 2014, UNESCO named the old city of Bursa a World Heritage site. Five of these heritage areas are located within Bursa. The builders of these five building complexes (külliye) were the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth rulers of the Ottoman dynasty. They cover the entire history of the Ottomans from the founding of the state to the conquest of Istanbul.



The third article, 'The Ottoman Capital in Europe—Edirne,' describes how the Ottomans captured Adrianople, an important Byzantine city in the Balkans, in 1369. They renamed it Edirne, and it became the Ottoman center in Europe. In 1413, Edirne officially became the capital of the Ottoman Empire, remaining so until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. After Prince Suleiman made Edirne his capital in 1403, he immediately began building the Old Mosque complex (Eski Cami) east of the old city. During the reign of Sultan Murad II, the second Muradiye complex and the third Three-Balcony Mosque complex (Üç Şerefeli Cami) were built in Edirne, along with a royal palace in the north.



The fourth article, 'The Palace of the Ottoman Empire—Topkapi Palace (Topkapi Saray),' introduces the palace. It sits on the site of the former Byzantine acropolis in the eastern part of Istanbul's old city, overlooking the Golden Horn. Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror ordered its construction in 1459. Topkapi Palace was first called the New Palace (Yeni Saray) to tell it apart from the Old Palace (Eski Saray), which was built between 1454 and 1459. Topkapi Palace went through several major expansions and renovations in the 16th century. Its importance faded after the 17th century, and by the 19th century, it only served as a treasury, library, and mint.



India: Delhi Sultanate, Sur Empire, Mughal Empire, Qutb Shahi dynasty, and Asaf Jahi dynasty.

The first article, "The First City of Delhi: A Minaret Reaching the Clouds," introduces the ancient city of Lal Kot. In 1193, the Ghurid dynasty from Iran and Afghanistan conquered Lal Kot, the first city of Delhi. The Ghurid dynasty soon split apart, and Qutb, the general left in charge of Delhi, established the Delhi Sultanate. Qutb tore down Hindu and Jain temples in the city to build a massive mosque. Later, the Qutb Mosque underwent two major expansions by succeeding sultans, Iltutmish in 1225 and Alauddin Khalji in 1310, making Lal Kot the political, religious, and cultural center of the Delhi Sultanate.



The second article, "The Second City of Delhi: A Turkic Fortress Against the Mongol Army," introduces the ancient city of Siri. In 1299, Duwa, the Khan of the Mongol Chagatai Khanate, sent his son Qutlugh Khwaja to lead an expedition against the Delhi Sultanate. Both sides suffered heavy losses in a decisive battle on the outskirts of Delhi, but the Chagatai army eventually retreated because their commander was seriously wounded. To defend against the next invasion by the Chagatai army, Sultan Alauddin Khalji decided to build the second city of Delhi, Siri, to the northeast of Delhi's first city, Lal Kot. In 1303, the Chagatai Khanate launched another major expedition and besieged the unfinished city of Siri. After two months of siege, the Chagatai army could not break through the city and chose to retreat. After the siege ended, Alauddin Khalji built a palace in Siri, making it the new capital of the Delhi Sultanate, replacing Lal Kot.



The third article, 'The Third City of Delhi: The Indestructible Beautiful Ruins,' introduces the ancient city of Tughlaqabad. After Alauddin died in 1316, the Delhi Sultanate fell into civil war. In 1320, General Ghazi-ud-Din Tughlaq became the Sultan. The following year, Ghazi built a massive city to the east of Lal Kot and Siri, which became the third city of Delhi, Tughlaqabad. Ghazi dreamed of building this fortress to be indestructible, strong enough to withstand the fiercest attacks from the Mongol army, but fate did not go as he wished. After the Delhi Sultanate fell, the nomadic Gurjar people took over the city. It became a wilderness, leaving behind only massive walls and ruins.



The fourth article, 'The Fourth City of Delhi: The Mysterious Sultan's Palace,' introduces the ancient city of Jahanpanah. In 1325, Muhammad bin Tughluq, the son of Ghazi ud-Din Tughluq, took the throne. To stop the Mongol army from invading, Muhammad connected Delhi's first city, Lal Kot, and its second city, Siri, with walls to build the fourth city of Delhi, Jahanpanah. The famous traveler Ibn Battuta lived in Delhi. He wrote in his travelogues that Lal Kot was the city center, Siri was the military camp, and Jahanpanah in the middle was the palace area.



The fifth article, 'The Fifth City of Delhi: Spirits and the Ashoka Pillar,' introduces the ancient city of Ferozabad. In 1351, Firoz Shah Tughluq, the cousin of Muhammad who built Delhi's fourth city, took the throne. He built a new capital in the north of Delhi. Today, the Feroz Shah Kotla fort, the heart of Ferozabad, is filled with palace ruins. The most famous is the Delhi-Topra Ashoka Pillar, which Firoz Shah found and brought back to Delhi during an expedition. Every Thursday afternoon, many people come to Feroz Shah Kotla. They place milk and grains against the walls and write their wishes on paper, asking the spirits (Jinn) in the castle to make their wishes come true.



The sixth chapter, The Sixth City of Delhi—The Birth of the Mughal Dynasty, introduces the ancient city of Din Panah. Din Panah was the first Mughal city in Delhi, built in 1533 by Humayun, the second ruler of the Mughal Empire. In 1540, Sher Shah defeated Humayun to establish the Sur Dynasty, and Din Panah became the capital of the Sur Dynasty. Humayun recaptured Din Panah in 1555, but he fell and died there the following year. The inner city walls of Din Panah, now known as the Old Fort (Purana Qila), are still well-preserved today. Inside the Old Fort are significant historical buildings, including the Sur Dynasty's royal mosque and the library where Humayun fell to his death. These are vital historical sites for the early Mughal and Sur dynasties.



The seventh chapter, The Seventh City of Delhi—The Mughal Capital, introduces the ancient city of Shahjahanabad. In 1628, the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan, took the throne. Under his rule, Mughal architectural aesthetics reached a new height, and this period is recognized as the golden age of Mughal architecture. Besides building the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi between 1639 and 1648, naming it Shahjahanabad after himself. Shah Jahan made Shahjahanabad the capital of the Mughal Empire, aiming to show the grandeur and power of the empire. Shahjahanabad is now known as Old Delhi and still keeps many historical sites and traditional neighborhoods. The most important site inside the city, the Red Fort, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2007.



The eighth article, 'An Ancient Muslim City on the Deccan Plateau: Golconda Fort,' introduces Golconda Fort on the Deccan Plateau in southern India. Because it had the only diamond mine in the world at the time, it was once the center of the global diamond trade. In 1518, Quli Qutb Mulk established the Qutb Shahi dynasty here, also known as the Golconda Sultanate. In 1687, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb captured Golconda Fort after an eight-month siege, and the site gradually fell into ruins. Today, many ruins of palaces, mosques, and gardens still remain here. Near Golconda Fort, you can find the tombs of the sultans from the Qutb Shahi dynasty. These tombs feature the classic style of Muslim architecture on the Deccan Plateau and are well worth seeing.



The ninth article, 'Hyderabad: An Ancient Muslim Capital in South India,' explains that in 1591, the Qutb Shahi dynasty moved its capital to the banks of the Musi River, east of the old city, to solve water shortages at Golconda Fort, establishing the city of Hyderabad. At that time, Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah invited several famous Persian architects to plan the city of Hyderabad and build landmarks like the Charminar gate and the Mecca Mosque. Hyderabad is also an important center for Shia Muslims in southern India, and it still preserves a hall built in 1594 to commemorate Imam Hussain.



The tenth article, 'The Asaf Jahi Dynasty: A Muslim State on the Deccan Plateau in South India,' explains that in 1687, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb captured Hyderabad after an eight-month siege and incorporated it into the Mughal Empire. In 1724, a high-ranking Mughal official named Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi set up his own government in Hyderabad. Because he used the highest honorific title of the Mughal Empire, Asaf Jahi, his line became known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Hyderabad currently preserves the Chowmahalla Palace built by the Asaf Jahi dynasty, as well as the Paigah Tombs, which are famous for their exquisite plaster and marble carvings.



China: Moghulistan (East Chagatai Khanate), Yarkand Khanate

The first article, 'From Ili to Turpan—Two Royal Tombs of the East Chagatai Khanate,' introduces the early history of the East Chagatai Khanate through the tombs of its founding Khan, Tughluq Timur, and its third Khan, Khizr Khoja, located in Ili and Turpan. After the 14th century, conflicts deepened between the settled Chagatai Mongols in Transoxiana and those on the eastern steppes, eventually causing the Chagatai Khanate to split into eastern and western parts. In 1348, Tughluq Timur established the East Chagatai Khanate with Almalik as its capital. After taking the throne, Khan Tughluq Timur ordered all Chagatai Mongols in the East Chagatai Khanate to convert to Islam. He later unified the entire khanate through two western campaigns, but shortly after his death, the khanate fell into chaos again, and almost all of his descendants were killed. In 1389, Tughluq Timur's youngest son, Khizr Khoja, who had been in hiding for many years, took the throne. To escape the eastern campaign of Tamerlane the Great, Khizr Khoja moved the royal court east to Turpan, where he eventually died.



The second article, 'The Last Capital of the Chagatai—Yarkand,' introduces how Sultan Said Khan, a descendant of the East Chagatai royal family, established the Yarkand Khanate in 1514 with Yarkand as its capital, ruling southern Xinjiang until 1680. During the Yarkand Khanate's rule over southern Xinjiang, the Chagatai Mongols shifted from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one and blended into the Uyghur people. The Uyghur people also gradually developed into a modern ethnic group during this period. Culturally, the Yarkand Khanate era saw the creation of famous historical works like the Tarikh-i-Rashidi and the Chronicles, and the Twelve Muqam musical tradition was also finalized during this time. In the later years of the Yarkand Khanate, the Black Mountain faction of the Sufi Naqshbandi order took control of Yarkand city. After the Dzungar Khanate and the White Mountain faction occupied southern Xinjiang in 1680, the Black Mountain faction withdrew for a time, but they returned to rule Yarkand city for half a century between 1697 and 1755.



Malaysia: Malacca Sultanate

The book The First Sultanate in Southeast Asia: Malacca explains that Paramesvara, a prince of the Srivijaya kingdom, was named King of Malacca by the Yongle Emperor in 1406. Since most merchants trading with Malacca were Muslims, the rulers of Malacca increasingly saw the importance of Islam in trade. During the reign of the third ruler, Raja Tengah (1424-1444), all royal ministers converted to Islam, the king became a sultan, and the Malacca Sultanate became the first sultanate in Southeast Asia. In 1511, the Portuguese captured Malacca and destroyed all of the city's original palaces, cemeteries, and mosques. After the Dutch took over Malacca, they adopted a relatively tolerant religious policy and began building mosques with unique Malaccan features in the early 18th century.



Indonesia: Demak Sultanate, Banten Sultanate, Mataram Sultanate, Yogyakarta Sultanate, and Surakarta Sunanate.

The first article, 'The Earliest Sultanate on Java—Demak,' explains that Arab and Indian Muslim merchants began settling on the north coast of Java in the 15th century. The port of Demak became a powerful trading hub by importing spices from the Spice Islands and exporting rice to the Malacca Sultanate. Established between 1475 and 1568, the Demak Sultanate was the first sultanate on Java and played a major role in spreading Islam across the island. Today, the Great Mosque of Demak remains the most important early traditional mosque in Java, and the tomb of Sunan Kalijaga in the southeastern suburbs of Demak is also a significant Islamic holy site in Java.



The second article, 'The Jerusalem of Java—Kudus,' introduces how Sunan Kudus, one of the nine Islamic saints of Java (Wali Sanga), preached on the island during the 16th century. He blended Islamic culture with traditional Javanese culture and built the unique Al-Aqsa Mosque of Kudus. After he passed away, he was buried in the backyard of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and his tomb became a famous Islamic holy site in Java.



The third article, 'Ocean City at the Western Tip of Java: Banten,' introduces how the Banten Sultanate rose to become a powerful maritime trading nation in the 16th century, controlling the pepper trade in Southeast Asia. The Banten Sultanate reached its peak in the 17th century and had intense conflicts with the Dutch East India Company. After the 18th century, the Banten Sultanate gradually came under the control of the Dutch East India Company and was finally incorporated into the Dutch East Indies in the 19th century. Today, the ancient city of Banten still preserves many ruins, and the Great Mosque of Banten, built in the 16th century, remains a famous religious site. two palaces of the Banten Sultanate, a Dutch fortress, and several tombs of the Banten Sultans are still preserved.



The fourth article, 'The Lost Ancient Capital of Java: Kotagede,' introduces the town of Kotagede in the southeastern suburbs of the ancient Javanese city of Yogyakarta. Its name means 'great city,' and it served as the first capital of the Mataram Sultanate between the 1570s and 1613. The Mataram Sultanate was the most powerful Islamic kingdom on Java in the 17th century. It later split into the two sultanates of Yogyakarta and Surakarta in 1755, which continue to exist today. Kota Gede still keeps the mosque and royal tombs of the Mataram Sultanate. The tomb guards work for both the royal families of Yogyakarta and Solo, making this a famous pilgrimage site for people from both cities.



The fifth article, 'Indonesia's Last Sultanate Territory—Yogyakarta,' explains how the Mataram Sultanate fell into power struggles in the late 17th century and finally split into the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate in 1755. After Indonesia gained independence, the Yogyakarta Sultanate became the Yogyakarta Special Region. The Sultan serves as the governor, making it the only region in Indonesia currently ruled by a Sultan. Today, Yogyakarta preserves the palace, water palace garden, and Great Mosque built by the Sultan in the 18th century. You can also eat royal palace food and enjoy court music there.



The sixth article, 'Central Java's Ancient City—Solo,' introduces how a Chinese-Javanese coalition destroyed the Mataram Sultanate capital of Kartasura in 1742. The last Sultan, Pakubuwono II, officially moved the capital to Solo (Surakarta) in 1745. In 1755, the Mataram Sultanate officially split into the Surakarta Sunanate and the Yogyakarta Sultanate, and Solo became the capital of the Surakarta Sunanate. Today, the Sunan still lives in most of the Solo palace, with only a part open as a museum. There is also the Solo Mosque built in 1768, where many Islamic ceremonies are held. In 1757, the former Mataram Sultanate rebel Raden Mas Said established the Mangkunegaran princely state near Solo. That same year, he built the Mangkunegara Palace in Solo, which is now open to the public as a tourist attraction. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Quanzhou Baiqi — Guo Hui Muslims and Islamic History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Over 10,000 Hui Muslims with the surname Guo live in Baizaki Hui Township, 12 kilometers east of Quanzhou city. The account keeps its focus on Quanzhou Muslims, Guo Hui Muslims, Islamic History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Over 10,000 Hui Muslims with the surname Guo live in Baizaki Hui Township, 12 kilometers east of Quanzhou city. They are known as "Baiqi Guo" or "Jiuxiang Guo." The name "Jiuxiang Guo" comes from the nine villages where the Guo clan has lived since the Qing Dynasty: Baiqi, Xiadai, Daishang (also known as Liandai), Tiancen (also known as Tianyin), Lichun, Dashan, Hecuo, Shandou, and Houhai. The Guo clan also lives in five other villages: Kepu, Doumentou, Liangmu, Houtang, and Jiakeng.

In local gazetteers and clan genealogies from the Ming and Qing dynasties, Baiqi was referred to by three written variants of the same place name. After 1949, the area was uniformly called Baiqi. In August 1990, when the Hui Township was established, its name changed to Baizaki.



Part 1: History Before the Yuan Dynasty

The various genealogies of the Guo clan in Baiqi have vague and contradictory records about their life before settling there. These records likely include some embellishments and made-up stories. But by looking closely at these genealogies and checking them against the history of that time, we can still make a reasonable guess. Two valuable studies are 'Several Issues in the Early History of Baiqi Hui Muslims' by Professor Shi Yilong from Xiamen University, and 'Origins of the Guo Surname in Baiqi and Madrasa Education' by Professor Wu Youxiong from Quanzhou Normal University.

Were their ancestors Prince of Fenyang Guo Ziyi?

The Guo family of Baiqi claims Prince of Fenyang Guo Ziyi as their ancestor. This claim appears in the At this time, only a few decades had passed since the Guo family settled in Baiqi.

Although they claim Guo Ziyi as an ancestor, the Guo family genealogy does not provide reliable lineage evidence. It only states: "

Since the Song and Yuan dynasties, compiling family genealogies gradually became a key part of Confucian ethics and clan cohesion. More and more private family genealogies were created. After the Ming Dynasty, many ordinary families' genealogies also began to use a grander format. These genealogies traced back dozens of generations, often listing ancestors who were ancient emperors, from prominent lineages, or held high official ranks. Guo Ziyi was enshrined in the Ming Dynasty's Temple of Emperors and Kings in 1388 (the 21st year of Hongwu). He was listed as a meritorious official from ancient and modern times. Guo Ziyi was an important famous person with the surname Guo, and many Guo family genealogies from the Ming and Qing dynasties claimed him as an ancestor. Coincidentally, another branch of Guo Hui Muslims lives in Guocuo Village, Quangang District, 70 li northeast of Baiqi Hui Township. They have no direct connection with the Baiqi Guo clan, but they also claim Guo Ziyi as their ancestor.

2. Were their ancestors Han Chinese who converted to Islam?

If Guo Ziyi is their ancestor, then the question of why they, as Han Chinese, believe in Islam needs to be answered. In the Guo Zhaofen said that among the Guo clan, there were two theories: "following the mother's religion" and "originally Hui." He found both unreasonable, so he proposed a third theory: "adapting to Hui." This means the Guo ancestors had close ties with Muslims and then converted to Islam.

The "adapting to Hui" theory is quite reasonable. The Baiqi Guo clan did not face the same challenges as other Semu people during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. They lived peacefully. Soon after arriving in Baiqi, they built an ancestral temple (jiamiao) and compiled a family genealogy (jiapu). We will talk more about these later.

3. The Guo Clan's Founding Ancestor in Quanzhou

According to clan records, the Guo family once lived in Guojia Village, Fuyang, Hangzhou, and came to Quanzhou during the Yuan Dynasty. There are two theories about the earliest ancestor of the Guo family to arrive in Quanzhou. The mainstream theory names Guo Deguang (from

Genealogies that record Guo Zhang as the founding ancestor in Quanzhou state, and Records mention "Dezhao Gong's branch in Xingzhai, Dongjie, and other places." This means Guo Zhangsheng had two brothers, Guo Deguang and Guo Dezhao. Guo Deguang's descendants lived on Fashi Shitou Street and in Baiqi. Guo Dezhao's descendants lived in Xingzhai Village and on Quanzhou Dongjie. This theory connects the Guo clan of Baiqi with the Jundong Guo clan, who live in Quanzhou's Xingzhai Hui Muslim Village.

Thousands of Guo-surname Hui Muslims live in Xingzhai Hui Muslim Village and other areas in Luojiang District, east of Quanzhou city. Their family genealogies state in the preface: "First ancestor Tong, courtesy name Mengliang, sobriquet Leqiao Chushi." A person from Fuyang, Zhejiang, came to Quanzhou in the late Yuan Dynasty, following a commissioner. He enjoyed the beautiful scenery of Quanzhou and settled there. Because Guo Mengliang lived on Dongjie Street in Quanzhou, his descendants became known as the Jun Dong Guo clan. Later, Guo Mengliang's fifth-generation descendants, Guo Yuan and Guo Quan, moved to Xingzhai during the Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty. After that, they spread to various other places.

The "Quanzhou Prefecture Gazetteer" also has a record about Guo Mengliang, the first ancestor of the Jun Dong Guo clan: "Guo Tong, courtesy name Mengliang, alias Leqiao, was originally from Fuyang, Zhejiang." It also says, "In the late Yuan Dynasty, he followed his ancestor Qin, who served as Quanzhou Salt Commissioner." Additionally, the epitaph of Guo Mengliang's wife, Ms. He, records: "She married Guo Mengliang from the same village. Guo, from Fuyang, Zhejiang, served his ancestor Qin, who came to Fujian as an official in the late Yuan Dynasty." "

This states that Guo Mengliang came to Quanzhou from Fuyang, following his ancestor "Qin." The founding ancestor of the Baiqi Guo clan, Guo Deguang, was named "Qin." The Baqi Guo Family Genealogy records: "His official name was Qin, his courtesy name was Deguan. He was a descendant from Guojia Village, Fuyang, Zhejiang." In the local gazetteer, "congzu" refers to a grandfather's brother. So, Guo Mengliang was likely a junior relative of Guo Dezhao. He came to Quanzhou from Fuyang, Zhejiang, with Guo Deguan.

The "Qishan Guo Family Genealogy Preface" of the Baiqi Guo clan states that Guo Deguan first lived outside Xingchun Gate in Quanzhou. He later moved to Fashi. Xingchun Gate was the east gate of Quanzhou's inner city during the Tang Dynasty. After the Yuan Dynasty, it became part of the city. Its location is in the middle section of Quanzhou's East Street. This was exactly where Guo Mengliang, the ancestor of the Guodong Guo clan, lived.

Based on current documents, it is inferred that Guo Deguan and his junior relative Guo Mengliang likely came one after another from Guojia Village, Fuyang, Zhejiang, to settle on Quanzhou's East Street.

4. Guo Deguan Living in Fashi

Fashi Village is on the north bank of the Jinjiang River, in the eastern suburbs of Quanzhou city. It was an important commercial pier for Quanzhou Port during the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Yuan Dynasty, from Meishan to Bantou in Fashi, there was a stone street several li long along the river. In 1346, Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta came to Quanzhou Port. He wrote in *Ibn Battuta's Travels*: "The city's port is one of the world's great ports, perhaps even the largest." We saw about a hundred large ships anchored in the harbor, and countless smaller boats. This port is a huge bay that extends inland, meeting a large river. "

The Jiangkou Pier of Fashi Port is located where the river meets the sea at the end of Shitou Street in Fashi Village. It was a trade hub during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Jiangkou Pier once had eight ferry crossings, but today only Meishan Ferry Pier and Wenxing Ferry Pier remain.

Due to years of silt accumulation, the riverbed rose and formed an islet. Then, real estate development happened. The river's surface no longer looks as it did back then.



Meishan Ferry Pier is built with granite. The existing upper layer was built in modern times. The lower layer shows different periods from the Song to Qing dynasties, built one on top of another, mostly using a header-stretcher bond method.









The Wenxing Ferry Terminal was also built with granite, mainly using staggered joint masonry. The visible remaining section is nearly 20 meters long; the rest has sunk into the river.





Fashi was an important trading port in Quanzhou. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, many Muslim merchants from Arabia and Persia lived there. Even after the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Jin, Xia, and Guo families of Hui Muslims still lived in the area. In 1959, the Quanzhou Maritime Museum's investigation team found several Islamic stone tombs, built in the Sumeru pedestal style, at the "West Cemetery" on Jincuo Mountain in Meishan, Fashi.



5. Guo Deguang's Tombstone – Was the Guo family from Persia?

In 1956, villagers from Shitou Street in Fashi Village were leveling land at a place commonly known as "Liugongqi." They dug up a very large "foreign guest tomb" and turned the area into a garden. Villagers said this tomb had a large square stone platform, divided into upper and lower levels. Each level had two Islamic stone tombs in the Sumeru pedestal style. At the head of the upper level was a tombstone. Villagers broke it into two pieces and carried it back to the village to pave the floor of the collective warehouse.

The Quanzhou Maritime Museum has a Yuan Dynasty Sumeru pedestal-style Islamic stone tomb. The two stone tombs built by Liu Gong might have a similar design.



In 1959 and 1974, an investigation team from the Quanzhou Maritime Museum followed clues from the



The upper right corner of this tombstone has The upper left corner has Below that,

The Chinese characters on the tombstone are easy to explain, but interpreting the Arabic text is very difficult. In the early 1980s, the view of Chen Dasheng, director of the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, became widely accepted. He interpreted the Arabic text as

Professor Wu Youxiong of Quanzhou Normal University offered a completely different interpretation in his work "The Origin of the Guo Clan in Baiqi and Madrasa Education." Wu Youxiong consulted the director of the Arabic department at China National Radio. He then concluded that the inscription was Minnan dialect, spelled in Arabic script, reading "Yin Go Zi Ta-gag Mou." This translates to "Yuan Dynasty Guo Deguan's Tomb." Previous interpreters didn't know Minnan dialect, so they couldn't translate it. There is no evidence that the Guo clan came from Persia.

The method of writing Chinese with Arabic script is called Xiaoerjing or Xiaoerjin, and it is also known as Xiaojing. It was used to annotate Islamic texts during study. The Guo clan genealogy records show that Guo Deguan's tomb was rebuilt many times. This tombstone was likely re-erected during the Qing Dynasty by Guo descendants who were Muslim. The experience of the Guo descendants restarting madrasa education during the Qing Dynasty will be discussed in detail later.

Two: Settling in Baiqi in the Early Ming Dynasty.

One: Did they move to Baiqi to escape ethnic unrest at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty?

Guo Deguan's grandson, Guo Zhongyuan, moved from Fashi to Baiqipu, across from Houzhu Port, during the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty. This area then became the current Baiqi Hui Muslim Township. Many studies say Guo Zhongyuan moved because of wars at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the oppression of Semu people in the early Ming Dynasty. But is that really true?

Between 1357 and 1366, the Ispah Rebellion (Yisibaxi Zhanluan) broke out in Quanzhou. It was organized by Persian Semu people. This caused unprecedented disaster and severe destruction in Quanzhou. After the war, Quanzhou saw a wave of anti-Semu sentiment. Many Semu people were killed in revenge. The "History of the Jin Clan Genealogy of Qingyuan" (Qingyuan Jinshi Zupu Lishi) records: "In this conflict, all people from the Western Regions were wiped out. Those with foreign hair and high noses were mistakenly killed. The gates were closed, and executions continued for three days." Many surviving "foreigners" (fanren) in Quanzhou fled the city to find refuge.

Based on genealogical records, Guo Deguang was likely born around 1283-1303 and died around 1367-1387. Guo Deguang's later years were the peak of anti-Semu sentiment in Quanzhou. However, genealogies generally record that Guo Deguang "registered his household in Fashi by custom in the early Hongwu period." The "Preface to the Qishan Family Genealogy" (Qishan Jiapu Bixu) gives more detail: "In the ninth year of Hongwu (1376), he registered his household by custom and settled in Fashi." 1376 was the second year the Ming army controlled Quanzhou. After the Ming Dynasty took control of Quanzhou, they began to reorganize household registration. Guo Deguang's family was registered into the Ming Dynasty's household system at this time.

Guo Deguang lived in Fashi until he died "of illness." He was buried in Fashi after his death. Guo Deguang's son, Guo Zihong, lived for 49 years and died in 1366. He never left Fashi his whole life and was buried there after his death. His wife, Lady Weng, died in 1372 and was also buried in Fashi. The Potting Genealogy also records that Guo Shiquan, the eldest son of Guo Jiyuan (Guo Zihong's third son who stayed in Fashi), passed the provincial examination in 1411 and became a county official. The record states: "In the ninth year of Yongle (1411), he passed the provincial examination and served in the county, choosing to register in Jiangyou." This shows that Guo Shiquan received at least a stable education at that time.

It seems the Guo Deguang family not only survived the Ispah Rebellion and the subsequent massacres of Semu people without any record of suffering, but they were also registered in the household census after the Ming Dynasty took Quanzhou. Later, they even educated their descendants to become officials through imperial examinations.

2. Reasons for Guo Zhongyuan's Relocation

Let's look at why Guo Zhongyuan moved to Baiqi. The "Biography of Lord Zhongyuan" in the Baiqi Guo Clan Genealogy states that Guo Zhongyuan "accumulated wealth bit by bit and achieved success." He then "chose a place to build a house under Qishan Mountain in the 23rd Dudu of the county." This means Guo Zhongyuan accumulated some capital and decided to start a business elsewhere. The "Preface to the Baiqi Guo Clan Genealogy" also records: "Lord Zhongyuan had five sons and loved the joy of mountains and rivers. He chose a place under Qishan Mountain by the sea in Huiyi, built a house, and lived there." Neither record mentions war or fleeing.

From Guo Deguang onwards, several generations of the Guo family had a custom: the eldest son would go out to establish a new branch, while the youngest son stayed at the old family home. Guo Mengliang, a descendant of Guo Deguang and his younger brother Guo Dezhao, first lived on East Street in Quanzhou. Later, Guo Deguang founded a new settlement in Fashi, and Guo Mengliang stayed on East Street. Guo Deguang had one son, Guo Zihong. Guo Zihong's three sons were: the eldest, Guo Qinggong, who moved to Jiangxi; the second, Guo Zhongyuan, who founded a new branch in Baiqi; and only the third, Guo Jiyuan, who stayed in Poting, Fashi. Guo Zhongyuan originally lived in Daishang (Liandai) in Baiqipu. His four sons also followed this pattern: the eldest son lived in Baiqi, the second son lived in Lichun, the third son went to Zhangzhou, and only the fourth son stayed in Daishang (Liandai). Therefore, Guo Zhongyuan's move from Fashi to Baiqi was likely a result of the common "tree branching out" phenomenon seen in clan societies.

After the turmoil at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Quanzhou's maritime trade was severely damaged. The prosperity of Fashi Port was gone. After the Ming Dynasty began, maritime bans were issued six times during the Hongwu reign. The "Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty" states that "coastal residents were forbidden from privately communicating with foreign countries," "the use of foreign incense and goods by the populace was prohibited," and "not a single plank was allowed to go to sea." It is very likely that the Guo family shifted from commerce to agriculture during this period. Guo Zhongyuan and his eldest brother successively went out to make a living. The eldest brother went far to Jiangxi, and the second brother moved to the opposite bank of Houzhu Port. Only the youngest brother stayed behind to look after the ancestral home and graves, and manage ancestral worship.

Shi Yilong's study, 'A Preliminary Study on the Evolution and Causes of Religious Beliefs of the Hui Muslims in Chendai,' points out that the Ding clan of Chendai, another group of Hui Muslims in Quanzhou, also did not suffer oppression from the Semu people during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. They moved mainly because the early Ming dynasty banned sea trade, which made them shift from business to farming. So, the early Ming dynasty's ban on maritime trade was likely the main reason Guo Zhongyuan came to Baiqi.

3. Baiqipu in the early Ming Dynasty

Baiqipu is on the east side of the Luoyang River mouth in Quanzhou Bay. It sits across the river from Houzhu Port in Quanzhou. The area has large bay tidal flats and few people. Around Baiqipu, eight Han Chinese families lived: Zheng, Liang, Sun, Chen, Li, Yang, Jiang, Fu, and He. All were newcomers who moved from other places at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. There were no local prominent families. Far across the way is Quanzhou Houzhu Port.



After Guo Zhongyuan arrived at Baiqipu, he settled down to farm. The family genealogy Family Genealogy Doubts: Ancestral Land and House Deeds records: In the 14th year of Hongwu (1381), funds were prepared to purchase Sunfu Daitian, or the Sun family reclaimed land, located in Baiqi and other places in the 23rd du of Hui-an. It carried more than 1,000 shi in rent, and part of the autumn grain tax record is illegible. Here, "Sunfu Daitian" refers to the Sun family who lived at the foot of Longtou Mountain at that time. This is today's Daishang (Liandai) Village, and it is also where Guo Zhongyuan lived.



Guo Zhongyuan also built roads. His family genealogy, "Biography of Zhongyuan Gong," states that he "personally laid 300 li (steps) of stone roads for travelers." The Qiaowei stone bridge road was still in good condition in the 1960s.

The Guo family genealogy, "Preface to Re-adhering to Islam," says that Guo Zhongyuan built a mosque in Baiqi. He also collected many Islamic scriptures. The text states: "Since our ancestor settled in Baiqi, he kept thirty volumes of heavenly scriptures, founded a mosque, respected the teachings, and based his life on Allah."

However, Guo descendants who re-embraced Islam during the Qing Dynasty wrote this, and no earlier historical records confirm it.

4. Baiqi Stone Pavilion

The Baiqi Stone Pavilion (Baiqi shiting) was first known as Qiaowei Pavilion. People say Guo Zhongyuan built it during the Ming Dynasty's Hongwu era. It served as a resting pavilion at the Baiqi ferry crossing and is made entirely of granite. The pavilion's roof is umbrella-shaped, and its base is square. The pillars are in two layers: four inner pillars and twelve outer pillars. Together, they form two squares that look like the Chinese character "hui".











Legend has it that in 1417, during his fifth voyage to the Western Seas, Zheng He met Guo Zhongyuan at the Qingjing Mosque. Zheng He was invited to Baiqi, and Guo Zhongyuan welcomed him at the stone pavilion. This is why it's also called Jieguaan Pavilion, or "Welcoming Official Pavilion". But no documents record this event.

The stone pavilion was rebuilt twice during the Qianlong and Guangxu eras. A stele from its 1771 reconstruction (the 36th year of Qianlong) still stands today.



The Baiqi Stone Pavilion appeared in "China Tourism" magazine in November 1986. Back then, people still lived inside it. The pavilion's current look comes from its 2005 reconstruction.



5. Tomb of Guo Zhongyuan and His Wife

Guo Zhongyuan died in 1422 at the age of 75. His wife, Lady Chen, died in 1433 at the age of 82. They are buried at the foot of Longtoushan (Dragon Head Mountain), east of Xiadai Village. People commonly call it the "Stone Lion Cemetery".



The tomb of Guo Zhongyuan and his wife is a classic Song-Yuan Quanzhou Muslim Sumeru-pedestal style stone tomb (xumizuo shi mu). The Guo family called these tombs, which have a stone lid on a stone base, "Jiaomu" (religious tombs). They were also known as "Gaozai Mu" (cake-like tombs), representing Islam.





The stone tomb is made from granite, which is common in Quanzhou, and has five layers. The first layer has carvings of six-legged and ruyi patterns. The second layer shows continuous floral branches. The third layer features inverted lotus petals. On the fourth layer, the Chen family tomb on the left has carvings of lotus flowers and branches. The Guo Zhongyuan tomb on the right has Arabic inscriptions from Quran Chapter 55, verses 26 and 27:

Everything on Earth will perish; Only the essence of your Lord, full of majesty and honor, will remain forever.





This verse appears often on the tomb covers of Song and Yuan dynasty Muslim tombs in Quanzhou. It is also the most common carving on ancient Muslim tombs in Sanya.

A tombstone from the Quanzhou Maritime Museum collection has Quran Chapter 55, verses 26 and 27 inscribed on it:



Two stone tombs sit side by side on a stone platform. Behind them, a horseshoe-shaped retaining wall holds a cloud-and-moon shaped stone stele in its center. This shape also appears on Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic stone tombs in Quanzhou.



Stone carvings on both sides of the tomb look like stone lions and dragon heads.





Today, you can see many Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tombs similar to Guo Zhongyuan's tomb at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, Qingjing Mosque, and Lingshan Holy Tomb. After the Ming Dynasty, the Guo clan of Baiqi and the Ding clan of Chendai in Quanzhou continued to use this style. You can also find similar styles in Ming dynasty Islamic tombs in southeastern regions, like the Puhading Cemetery in Yangzhou and Ding Henian's tomb in Hangzhou.

A typical Quanzhou Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb:



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

The Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) stone tomb at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum is the most magnificent one found to date.



The Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb at Quanzhou's Lingshan Holy Tomb.



The Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb of the descendants of Quanzhou's Chendai Ding clan.



By Hangzhou's West Lake is the Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base (xumizuo) for the great poet Ding Henian. He died in 1424, just two years after Guo Zhongyuan.



An Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base in Yangzhou's Puhading Cemetery.



6. The Tomb of Guo Mengwei and His Wife.

Guo Mengwei was the second son of Guo Shichu, Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son. He died in 1480 at the age of 77. His wife, Ms. Huang, died in 1474 at the age of 69. After their deaths, they were buried right next to Guo Zhongyuan's tomb. Their tombs are also Islamic stone tombs with a Sumeru-style base, but they have no carvings. Behind the tomb is a stele commemorating its renovation in 1983.





Guo Mengwei's tomb, as seen in China Tourism magazine in November 1986.



A pair of stone lions stands next to the tombs of Guo Zhongyuan and Guo Mengwei.



7. The Family Tomb of Guo Shiyuan.

Guo Shiyuan was Guo Zhongyuan's second son. He died in 1407 at the age of 34. After his death, he was buried east of Lichun Village, in a place commonly known as the









Guo Shiyuan's tomb is also an Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base. The front of its lid has an intaglio cloud and moon pattern. The base has continuous branch patterns around its sides.



Next to Guo Shiyuan's tomb are two Islamic stone tombs with a Sumeru-style base. To the east is the tomb of his wife, Ms. Chen. To the west is the tomb of Ms. Zeng, wife of his eldest son, Guo Bangyong. Ms. Chen died in 1457; her stone tomb has no carvings. Ms. Zeng died during the Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty (1465-1487); her stone tomb has continuous branch patterns.





Also, behind Guo Shiyuan's tomb are stone tombs of his descendants:

The tomb of Guo Yiqin, Guo Shiyuan's great-grandson (fourth generation), who died in 1504.

This is the tomb of Guo Yiqin's first wife, Ms. Wang. Her death year is unknown. This is the tomb of Guo Yiqin's second wife, Ms. Li. Her death year is unknown. This is the tomb of Guo Xuyuan, Guo Yiqin's eldest son from the fifth generation. He died in 1526. The tomb of Guo Huaiqin, Guo Yiqin's third younger brother from the fourth generation, and his wife, Ms. Hu, was moved here in 1994. This happened because of construction at their original site. Guo Lianfu, from the fifth generation of the Guo family's Xin branch (fifth branch), and his wife, Ms. Pu, were moved here in 1997. This was due to construction at their original site. The gate to Guo Shiyuan Cemetery was closed when I visited. So, I could not see the tombs further inside.

Tomb of Guo Shichu and his wife.

Guo Shichu was Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son. He died in 1448 (the 13th year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) at the age of 79. His wife, Ms. Wu, died in 1439 (the 4th year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) at the age of 57. After they died, they were buried west of Tianyin Village. This place is commonly called the "Eldest Branch Public Cemetery." It is a four-tiered dolerite Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) stone tomb.



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

In the 1970s, during land reclamation work at Baiqi, a granite stone carving was unearthed. It was a waist-section stone from a Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) altar-style stone tomb. Arabic script on it reads: "He - Allah has supreme power, and you will all return to Him."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

A typical Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) altar-style Islamic stone tomb.



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

It is still unclear if these Islamic tombs were rebuilt by later generations. After the Kangxi Emperor's reign in the Qing Dynasty, the Guo clan of Baiqi once again converted to Islam. Guo Honglong, the first to convert, changed his father Guo Mucheng's Han-style coffin into an Islamic stone tomb. According to the "Genealogy of the Guo Clan's Main Branch":

Lord Mucheng had left the faith earlier. When his son Honglong converted, they renovated the tomb and changed his coffin burial to a Hui Muslim burial. It still looks like a bone tomb today.

Besides this record, no other Muslim stone tombs with a Sumeru pedestal-style tomb base and a tomb cover stone appeared in the Qing Dynasty. Qing Dynasty Muslim tombs changed to use brick or stone construction. The tomb base and cover were made with sanhe ash (a traditional Chinese mortar) to imitate Ming Dynasty tombs.

Three. Clan-ization?

In Professor Wang Ke's 2017 book, "The Vanishing Citizens: Modern China's 'Ethnic' Discourse and the National Identity of Minorities," in the first chapter, "From 'Muslim' to 'Chinese'," Professor Wang Ke introduced us to the Ding clan of Chendai, another large Hui Muslim group in Quanzhou. They achieved "localization" in the Ming Dynasty through "indigenization," "clan-ization," and "imperial examination integration." The Ding clan of Chendai, during their 8th, 9th, and 10th generations, gradually formed strict generational names, compiled genealogies, and achieved great success in the imperial examinations. They eventually stopped believing in Islam.

The Ding clan of Baiqi, however, was very different. Besides the Sumeru pedestal-style stone tombs and descriptions from Qing Dynasty descendants who reconverted about their ancestors' beliefs 400 years ago, the Guo clan of Baiqi in the early Ming Dynasty seemed to have fully integrated into the clan society of the Confucian system in Southern China. This is evident from their ancestral temple and genealogy.

One. Guo Clan Ancestral Temple.

The Guo clan ancestral temple of Baiqi was built by Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son, Guo Shichu, in 1432 (the 7th year of Xuande in the Ming Dynasty). It is commonly known as the "Grand Ancestral Hall" (dacitang). It was originally a "three-bay" traditional Southern Fujian house (dacu). During a renovation in the Qianlong era, it was expanded to a "five-bay" traditional Southern Fujian house (dacu). It was renovated again in 1873 (the 12th year of Tongzhi). In 1898 (the 24th year of Guangxu), the Grand Ancestral Hall (dacitang) was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt with donations from four Guo clan members during the Xuantong era and the early Republic of China period.











Exquisite and intricate Southern Fujian wood carvings.





















In the past, the Baiqi Grand Ancestral Hall (dacitang) enshrined Guo Deguang, Guo Zihong, Guo Zhongyuan and his wife, Guo Zhongyuan's five sons — Guo Shichu, Guo Shiyuan, Guo Shibi, Guo Shimin, Guo Shizhao — and their wives, and 16 ancestral tablets for Guo Mengjun (third generation of the eldest branch) and Guo Mengwei (fourth generation). After renovation in the early Republican era, the ancestral spirit tablets of four donors were also added.



In front of the Guo family temple, there are also the ruins of the 'Wumen' (Meridian Gate).



2. Guo Family Genealogy

Guo Zhongyuan had five sons; four were legitimate, and one was born to a concubine. So, at first, they were divided into four branches: Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi. Later, Lord Xitian established the fifth branch, Xin. This formed the five major branches of the Baiqi Guo clan: Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, and Xin. Among them, the eldest branch, Guo Shichu, lived in Baiqi. The second branch, Guo Shiyuan, and the fifth branch, Guo Shizhao, lived in Lichun. Later, the second branch expanded to Tiancen (Tianyin), Houhai, Doumentou, Liangmu, Houtang, and Jiakeng. The fifth branch lived in Liangmu. The third branch, Guo Shibi, lived in Shandou. The fourth branch, Guo Shimin, stayed in Daishang (Liandai), where his father lived. Later, the fourth branch expanded to Xiadai, Dashan, and Kepu (Jupu).



The Guo Family Genealogy was first compiled in 1436 (the first year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) by Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son, Guo Shichu. In 1436, Guo Shichu wrote the 'Preface to the Family Genealogy'. It mentioned: "If we do not clarify the generations, order the seniority, and distinguish closeness here, then as branches multiply and generations pass, will not clan members meet like strangers?" This clearly stated that compiling the genealogy was to strengthen the cohesion of the 'clan'.

The genealogy also includes the 'Family Instructions of Lord Yixuan' left by Guo Zhongyuan before his death in 1422 (the 20th year of the Yongle reign).

All family heads must strictly observe propriety and law. This is to uphold the family's reputation and establish meritorious achievements. Seniority must be respected, and genders kept separate. Brothers and sisters live in peace, and annual sacrifices are abundant and pure. Children and grandchildren are humble and respectful, never lacking in filial piety. Do not get used to idleness; be diligent in your studies. Follow good deeds diligently and aspire to be bright and wise. Relatives have shown kindness, so do not stop giving them gifts and checking in. Servants perform their duties, and you must distinguish between good and bad among them. What is harvested from the fields and gardens, expenses should be kept in check. Neighbors live in harmony; do not deceive or destroy each other. All these points must not be violated. If you do not follow them, it is called evil. When we meet again in the future, even if you regret it, it will be hard to clear your name.

The text mentions These are all typical expressions of a Confucian clan society.



View of Baiqi Village.



View of Xiadai Village.

3. The third-generation ancestral house (zucu) in Kepu Village.

In 2013, the Quanzhou Underwater Archaeology Land Survey Team found an ancestral house (zucu) in Kepu Village, Baiqi Township. It showed an early style of "brick-and-stone construction" (chuzhuanrushi), a unique architectural feature of Southern Fujian. Red tiles and crushed stones filled the gaps between the granite blocks, laid in a staggered vertical pattern.

Elder Guo Jialin, a descendant of the Guo family, said this was the home of Guo Jianping (1419-1487). Guo Jianping was the third-generation ancestor, and the son of Guo Shiming, who was the fourth son of Guo Zhongyuan.







Three. Abandoning the Faith During the Ming Dynasty's Wanli Era.

In 1607, during the 35th year of the Ming Dynasty's Wanli reign, the Guo family stopped practicing Islam.

The Guo family genealogy, "Shi Hui Bian," states: "The family abandoned the faith by the eighth or ninth generation, likely during the Ming Dynasty's Wanli era." The "eighth or ninth generation" here is counted from Guo Deguang. If counted from Guo Zhongyuan, it would be the "sixth or seventh generation." "

The "Guo Shi Ben Fang Ben Zhi Shi Xi" records: "Our family abandoned the faith, likely in the 35th year of the Ming Dynasty's Wanli reign." "

The Guo family genealogy, "Fu Zun Hui Hui Jiao Xu," explains why they abandoned the faith. It says war caused burning and destruction, and they lost their religious leader (zhangjiao). The text states: "Our family respected it for generations, never forgetting it through the ages." "However, after the fifth generation, they suffered from the ravages of war. The religious leadership was lost. This led them to be influenced by other faiths, and they became ignorant of the true teachings."

The war mentioned here was likely the famous "Jiajing Wokou raids" during the Ming Dynasty. The Jiajing Wokou raids started in 1552, the 31st year of the Jiajing reign. Wang Zhi, a merchant from Huizhou, joined forces with pirate groups from Fujian. They led many "Wokou" (Japanese pirates) to invade Zhejiang and Fujian. Volume 384 of the "Veritable Records of Emperor Shizong of Ming" states: "Pirates from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou lured over ten thousand Japanese, who sailed more than a thousand ships..."

In 1556, the 35th year of the Jiajing reign, the "Wokou" attacked Quanzhou. They captured Chongwu City, 20 kilometers east of Baiqi. This city was built to defend against the Wokou. The Quanzhou Garrison Commander died in battle. Huian County was plundered many times. Battles also broke out repeatedly at Yashan, 5 kilometers north of Baiqi.

Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang led their armies to Quanzhou to fight back in 1563, the 42nd year of the Jiajing reign. The "Wokou rebellion" in Quanzhou finally ended in 1569, the 3rd year of the Longqing reign.

At the same time, Quanzhou's other major Hui Muslim clan, the Chencai Ding clan, also stopped practicing Islam. The tenth-generation ancestor of the Ding clan, Ding Yanxia (1516-1597?), recorded in the clan genealogy, "Ancestral Teachings" (Zujiaoshuo), that during his childhood, the Chencai Ding clan still followed Islamic rules. These included namaz, fasting, not eating pork, ritual slaughter, and burial in the ground. But by the late 16th century, when Ding Yanxia wrote his works, the Chencai Ding clan had switched to wooden coffins. They no longer performed namaz, did not fast, did not perform ritual slaughter, and ate pork. After this, many members of the Chencai Ding clan passed the imperial examinations and built many ancestral halls. Islam completely disappeared in the 17th century.

Ding Yanxia's "Discourse on Clan Gathering" (Zongjushuo) from 1562 states that the Chencai Ding clan suffered a severe raid by Japanese pirates (Wokou) in 1561. They had heavy losses. Many Ding clan members moved into the city to escape the disaster. The Chencai Ding clan's eventual abandonment of Islam was likely related to the Jiajing Wokou raids.

Today, the temples of the Chencai Ding clan:



In fact, Islam was in decline throughout Quanzhou between the 16th and 17th centuries. The "Record of the Reconstruction of Qingjing Mosque" (Chongxiu Qingjing Si Beiji) from 1607 states: "Therefore, the Qingjing (Muslim) talk of heaven is not as good as the Buddhist talk of hell. Even those families who once upheld the faith now turn their backs and abandon it. This is why the religion declined and the mosque fell into disrepair. It is due to a gradual loss of direction, not the original intent of the religion!" "

The phrase mentioned here, "Even those families who once upheld the faith now turn their backs and abandon it," most likely refers to the Baiqi Guo clan and the Chencai Ding clan, who had recently left Islam.

Four. Returning to Islam during the Kangxi Reign of the Qing Dynasty.

1. Moving to Qingjing Mosque.

In 1709 (the 48th year of Kangxi's reign), Chen Yougong, the Grand Commandant (Zuodudu) and Regional Commander (Zongbingguan) of Fujian's Ting, Yan, and Shao areas, came to Quanzhou. He revived the faith and started a school at Qingjing Mosque for madrasa education. At that time, Guo Honglong, the eighth-generation member of the fourth branch of the Guo clan, moved from Baiqipu Hecuo to live at Qingjing Mosque. He did this due to "the division of strong trunk and weak branches," a clan internal division. He then converted to Islam. After Honglong converted, more and more Guo clan members who did business in Quanzhou city came to Qingjing Mosque to convert. As the number of converts grew, a mosque was built in Daishang Village, where the fourth branch of the Guo clan lived. This happened with Chen Yougong's support. According to the Fenyang Guo Family Tree of Branches Relocating to Tonghuai Street in Quanzhou:

During the Kangxi Jichou year (1709), Governor Chen Yougong served as a military official in Quanzhou. He re-established the faith. The Baiqi uncle and nephew came to the city to trade, and many people re-entered the faith. Mr. Chen built the Daishang Mosque.

After Guo Honglong entered the faith, most of his descendants moved to live near Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque. Others lived at Daishang Mosque. The Fenyang Guo Family Tree of Branches Relocating to Tonghuai Street in Quanzhou states that during the Qianlong era, Guo Honglong's grandson, Guo Shifu, lived near Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque. Another grandson, Guo Shili, lived at Daishang Mosque. The family genealogy "Biography of Yizhai Gong" records that Guo Shifu, in 1794 (the 59th year of Qianlong), renovated the mosque with Bai Yunhan, the Deputy General of Zhangzhou Left Camp.

Qingjing Mosque was first built in 1009 (the second year of Dazhong Xiangfu in the Northern Song Dynasty). Ahmad from Shiraz, Persia, rebuilt it in 1309 (the second year of Zhida in the Yuan Dynasty). Qingjing Mosque was originally named Ashab Mosque, which means "Mosque of the Holy Companions." The name "Qingjing Mosque" originally belonged to another mosque built in the Southern Song Dynasty, south of Quanzhou city. Later, steles from the original Qingjing Mosque were moved to the Ashab Mosque, causing the names of the two mosques to become confused.

During the Kangxi era, when the Baiqi Guo family re-entered the faith, Qingjing Mosque's main prayer hall, Fengtiantan, had already collapsed from long-term disrepair. Some Muslims, including the Baiqi Guo family, built houses and lived within the Fengtiantan ruins.







In 1936, Imam Zhang Yuguang, a graduate of Chengda Normal School, came to oversee Islamic affairs in Quanzhou. In 1937, he published "Islam's Entry into China and the General Situation of Islam in Quanzhou" in "Yuehua" magazine. He wrote that four Baiqi Guo households still lived inside the Qingjing Mosque's main prayer hall at that time.

This is Qingjing Mosque, as photographed by "China Tourism" in November 1986. The four Baiqi Guo households lived here until they were moved out during the 1986 renovation.



After Fengtiantan collapsed, Mingshantang, on the north side, became the prayer hall. In 1818, it was rebuilt as a traditional courtyard house (siheyuan). In 1871, it was rebuilt again as a small three-room building with Southern Fujian (Min-nan) characteristics. In 1952, it was rebuilt as a simple tiled flat-roof house with a cement and wood frame. In 1998, it was rebuilt to restore its 1871 appearance.





The Guo family genealogy "Preface to Re-adhering to Islam" states that after the Guo family re-entered the faith, over a hundred people joined Islam. This happened under the leadership of the eighth-generation descendant Guo Sizhi and the tenth-generation descendant Guo Zhiquan, and after education from Imams "Master Zhuang" and "Master Ge." Most of these new converts came from the fourth branch, to which Guo Honglong belonged.

The eighth-generation descendant Sizhi Gong, the tenth-generation descendant Zhiquan Gong, and their junior relative Jing Gong, along with several others of their generation, had already received teachings from Master Zhuang. They were then transformed by Master Ge. As a result, over a hundred people in our clan re-adhered to this faith. Master Ge's sincere intention was to feel Allah's great grace. He traced back to the ancestors' tradition of sincere fasting and namaz, and explained the error of raising and eating pigs.

But in 1807 (the 12th year of Jiaqing), Guo Zhaofen also wrote in the family genealogy, in the essay 'On the Renovation of the Yizhai Guo Gong Tomb,' that the Baiqi Guo clan still had not translated Islamic scriptures. He wrote: 'The scriptures compiled by the religion are like a guiding rope, but their sounds and characters are different, and they remain untranslated to this day. Mr. Li Zhongyi appreciated that they were not translated, finding in this the ancient truth.' "

2. Qing Dynasty Islamic Stone Tombs

After the Guo clan Muslims rejoined Islam in the Qing Dynasty, they no longer used the Sumeru pedestal-style stone tombs from the Ming Dynasty. At 'Haitanbian,' west of Houhai Village in Baiqi Township, are the tombs of Guo Shuxian, from the 15th generation, and his three sons. Guo Shuxian died in 1875, at the age of 67. The tomb is a platform made of sanhetu (a traditional Chinese mortar of lime, sand, and clay). On the platform are two sanhetu tombs. A granite carving is set horizontally in front of the tomb table. It has the 'General Creed' of Islam inscribed on it: 'I believe in Allah. He has all noble names and all virtues. I accept all His laws.' "



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

Modern tombs of the Baiqi Guo clan near the Lingshan Holy Tomb.





5. Islam and Local Beliefs

1. Regulations Prohibiting Folk Buddhist and Taoist Beliefs

When the Guo clan rejoined Islam in the Qing Dynasty, folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs were already thriving in Baiqi. Because of this, the patriarchs of the four branches of the Guo clan, who followed Islam, tried to regulate customs and curb the growth of folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs.

Guo Zhaofen, a descendant of Guo Honglong, included a series of regulations he wrote to curb Buddhist and Taoist beliefs in the revised 'Guo Clan Genealogy' of 1808 (the 13th year of Jiaqing). These regulations included 4 chapters and 48 articles: 'Listing Warnings to Descendants Against Reckless Talk About Ancestors' Religion,' 'Listing Prohibitions to Instruct Descendants,' 'Listing Items Not Used in Ancestor Worship,' and 'Listing Funeral Regulations and Prohibitions.' These regulations show some aspects of the Baiqi Guo clan's religious beliefs in the early 19th century.

The first chapter, 'Listing Warnings to Descendants Against Reckless Talk About Ancestors' Religion,' explains some misunderstandings that later generations of the Baiqi Guo clan had about Islam. These include:

One rule states,

Another rule is,

A rule says,

The second chapter,

The family must not use merit-making rituals to send spirit money (mingjin), spirit paper (mingzhi), paper effigies (mingren), or any paper offerings to the deceased. "

The family must not use nuns to perform rituals for

The family must not use divine or Buddhist healing methods.

The family must not use popular sorcerers for

The family must not use spirit money (mingjin) or spirit silver (mingyin) after ancestor worship. Guo Zhaofen later added a note,

The family must not use cremation or jar (urn) burial.

The family must not use string puppet shows (xianxi), which are marionette shows. Guo Zhaofen pointed out, "

The third chapter,

Ancestor worship must not use drums or music.

Wear plain clothes for rituals.

For rituals, when slaughtering animals and preparing tools, you must follow religious rules.

For rituals, do not use aquatic animals that do not lay eggs.

For rituals, do not use shellfish or crustaceans.

Do not use pork at home.

Chapter Four, titled 'List of Appropriate Prohibitions for Funeral Systems,' forbids folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs during funerals. These include:

Do not use drums and music at funerals.

Do not use Taoist or Buddhist guides for funerals.

Do not offer paper money at funerals.

Do not erect banners at funerals, as this has become a bad practice.

2. Islam and Confucianism: Neither Betraying Nor Rigidly Adhering to Faith.

Read the books of sages, learn from their deeds, and neither betray nor rigidly adhere to your faith. Guo Zhaofen quoted this view from Confucian scholar Ding Zishen in the Jiaqing edition of the Qing Dynasty's 'Guo Family Genealogy'. Ding Zishen came from another branch of Hui Muslims in Quanzhou, the Chengdai Ding clan. He was a key figure in the Confucianization of the Chengdai Ding clan during the late Ming Dynasty.

Guo Zhaofen's 'Debate on Adapting to Hui Customs,' written in 1807 (the 12th year of Jiaqing) and found in the 'Guo Family Genealogy,' begins by listing three different religious beliefs. The first type is 'following Confucianism while also incorporating Taoist and Buddhist teachings,' which means Han customs. The second type was "Hui Muslims who also followed the Confucian way," referring to the Jin, Ding, Xia, Ma, and Die families in Quanzhou city who kept their Islamic faith. The third type was "Confucians who kept the Hui Muslim teachings," referring to the Guo clan. From this, we can see that the Baiqi Guo clan at that time already separated themselves from the Muslims in Quanzhou city. They believed they primarily followed Confucianism and kept Islam as a way to preserve their ancestors' customs.

In the four regulations set by Guo Zhaofen, it is also clear that these rules were not just to maintain the Islamic faith itself. They also aimed to make descendants follow their ancestors' religious customs through Confucian thought. The regulations repeatedly stressed that following their ancestors' Islamic customs was to follow the Confucian way:

"Previous generations already experienced this. Later generations of descendants should be warned not to forget family rules and not to bring shame to the Confucian way." "

"All close to Daoist, Buddhist, or evil cults should be completely rejected. The Confucian way should be upheld."

When sacrificing to ancestors, Guo Zhaofen wrote a rule: "Use Confucian rites for sacrifices as well." He later explained, "The pure and true religion (Islam) follows the rites of ancestral worship. But now, our clan first performs ancestral worship and then sacrifices." This further shows how the Baiqi Guo clan in the Qing Dynasty used both Confucianism and Islam.

Six. The Final Disappearance of Islam.

In the late Qing Dynasty, the mosque in Daishang Village collapsed due to long-term disrepair. The mosque then moved to the more remote Dashan Village, where the village's imam, "Uncle Tong," led religious affairs. "Uncle Tong" passed on the role to "Caoniao," who then passed it on to "Uncle Mao." These three generations of imams were all members of the Guo clan from Dashan Village and belonged to the same close family branch. "Uncle Tong" and "Caoniao" both studied at the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou. "Uncle Mao"'s name was Guo Xingfa. He was an imam trained by the Guo clan themselves.

From the 1930s to the 1940s, Dashan Village had over 30 Muslims. They were mostly clan members from the imam's own family branch, and nearly half of them were women. Every Friday, the Dashan Village Mosque holds Jumu'ah prayer. The imam recites the Quran in Arabic, then preaches Islamic teachings in the Minnan dialect. Whenever they slaughter cattle, they always ask the imam to recite scriptures.

At that time, Muslims in Dashan Village did not know much about Islamic teachings. Some also worshipped folk Buddhist and Taoist deities like Guan Di. The imam did not interfere.

In November 1986, China Tourism magazine photographed a handwritten Quran in Baiqi.



Guo Zhichao's "The Status of Islam in the Cultural Changes of Baiqi Hui Muslims," Guo Qiujun's "Hui'an Hui Muslims - Baiqi Guo," and Ye Wencheng's "Funeral Rites and Characteristics of Hui'an Baiqi Hui Muslims" recorded funeral rituals in Dashan Village during the 1930s and 1940s.

After a person died, their clothes were removed. A white sheet covered the body, which was then ritually cleansed. After the body was washed, male deceased were wrapped in white cloth. Female deceased wore a white long gown with a front opening, a white high-top hat, and white long socks. Three white cloths were used to tie the calves, abdomen, and chest separately. Then the eldest son carried the body to the ancestral hall of their branch, which served as a temporary mourning hall. The mourning bed was made of two long benches and three planks. An incense burner was placed on the mourning table. On both sides, there was a plate with twenty-four pieces of fried oil pastries (youxiang) made from rice flour. Some grieving families also placed a few plates of vegetarian dishes. At this time, the imam wore a blue pointed six-panel hat and a blue long gown. He sat cross-legged facing west on a folding chair in front of the mourning table and began to read the Quran.

Before the funeral procession, the deceased was placed into a temporary coffin (bian'guan). This coffin had wooden sides and a removable bottom. During the funeral procession, the temporary coffin was covered with a coffin shroud. The imam led the way, followed by three children. Four people carried the coffin behind them. Filial sons and daughters, wearing white mourning clothes and white mourning hats, followed. Finally, the mourners, who wore white cloth around their waists or arms (yaobai), followed.

After arriving at the cemetery, spices were sprinkled under the stone coffin. The stone coffin was made of four stone slabs, two long and two short. Its bottom was open to the earth. Four people stood at the four corners of the grave. They pulled open a red carpet to cover the grave. Then the white cloth strips on the deceased are lifted, the bottom board of the simple coffin is pulled out, and the deceased falls into the grave. Five pieces of red earth are placed on the deceased's head, both hands, and both feet. Seven stone slabs (qixingban) are placed on top. Earth is piled on, and some families will later cover it with mortar.

Before the 1940s, many Guo families in Baiqi had the custom of inviting an imam for the deceased. They handled the body and performed a quick burial according to Islamic customs. At that time, Baiqi Village hired Imam Tie Kaichen from Shouxian, Anhui. He mainly led religious ceremonies for funerals and ancestral worship. When Imam Tie was not there, a Guo family member named Guo Xiuye had studied scriptures for a few days with Imam Liu from Tianjin. His family had thirty volumes of Islamic scriptures. Imam Tie passed away during the Anti-Japanese War. From then on, the Guo family in Baiqi only had one imam left, Guo Xingfa. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Quanzhou Baiqi — Guo Hui Muslims and Islamic History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Over 10,000 Hui Muslims with the surname Guo live in Baizaki Hui Township, 12 kilometers east of Quanzhou city. The account keeps its focus on Quanzhou Muslims, Guo Hui Muslims, Islamic History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Over 10,000 Hui Muslims with the surname Guo live in Baizaki Hui Township, 12 kilometers east of Quanzhou city. They are known as "Baiqi Guo" or "Jiuxiang Guo." The name "Jiuxiang Guo" comes from the nine villages where the Guo clan has lived since the Qing Dynasty: Baiqi, Xiadai, Daishang (also known as Liandai), Tiancen (also known as Tianyin), Lichun, Dashan, Hecuo, Shandou, and Houhai. The Guo clan also lives in five other villages: Kepu, Doumentou, Liangmu, Houtang, and Jiakeng.

In local gazetteers and clan genealogies from the Ming and Qing dynasties, Baiqi was referred to by three written variants of the same place name. After 1949, the area was uniformly called Baiqi. In August 1990, when the Hui Township was established, its name changed to Baizaki.



Part 1: History Before the Yuan Dynasty

The various genealogies of the Guo clan in Baiqi have vague and contradictory records about their life before settling there. These records likely include some embellishments and made-up stories. But by looking closely at these genealogies and checking them against the history of that time, we can still make a reasonable guess. Two valuable studies are 'Several Issues in the Early History of Baiqi Hui Muslims' by Professor Shi Yilong from Xiamen University, and 'Origins of the Guo Surname in Baiqi and Madrasa Education' by Professor Wu Youxiong from Quanzhou Normal University.

Were their ancestors Prince of Fenyang Guo Ziyi?

The Guo family of Baiqi claims Prince of Fenyang Guo Ziyi as their ancestor. This claim appears in the At this time, only a few decades had passed since the Guo family settled in Baiqi.

Although they claim Guo Ziyi as an ancestor, the Guo family genealogy does not provide reliable lineage evidence. It only states: "

Since the Song and Yuan dynasties, compiling family genealogies gradually became a key part of Confucian ethics and clan cohesion. More and more private family genealogies were created. After the Ming Dynasty, many ordinary families' genealogies also began to use a grander format. These genealogies traced back dozens of generations, often listing ancestors who were ancient emperors, from prominent lineages, or held high official ranks. Guo Ziyi was enshrined in the Ming Dynasty's Temple of Emperors and Kings in 1388 (the 21st year of Hongwu). He was listed as a meritorious official from ancient and modern times. Guo Ziyi was an important famous person with the surname Guo, and many Guo family genealogies from the Ming and Qing dynasties claimed him as an ancestor. Coincidentally, another branch of Guo Hui Muslims lives in Guocuo Village, Quangang District, 70 li northeast of Baiqi Hui Township. They have no direct connection with the Baiqi Guo clan, but they also claim Guo Ziyi as their ancestor.

2. Were their ancestors Han Chinese who converted to Islam?

If Guo Ziyi is their ancestor, then the question of why they, as Han Chinese, believe in Islam needs to be answered. In the Guo Zhaofen said that among the Guo clan, there were two theories: "following the mother's religion" and "originally Hui." He found both unreasonable, so he proposed a third theory: "adapting to Hui." This means the Guo ancestors had close ties with Muslims and then converted to Islam.

The "adapting to Hui" theory is quite reasonable. The Baiqi Guo clan did not face the same challenges as other Semu people during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. They lived peacefully. Soon after arriving in Baiqi, they built an ancestral temple (jiamiao) and compiled a family genealogy (jiapu). We will talk more about these later.

3. The Guo Clan's Founding Ancestor in Quanzhou

According to clan records, the Guo family once lived in Guojia Village, Fuyang, Hangzhou, and came to Quanzhou during the Yuan Dynasty. There are two theories about the earliest ancestor of the Guo family to arrive in Quanzhou. The mainstream theory names Guo Deguang (from

Genealogies that record Guo Zhang as the founding ancestor in Quanzhou state, and Records mention "Dezhao Gong's branch in Xingzhai, Dongjie, and other places." This means Guo Zhangsheng had two brothers, Guo Deguang and Guo Dezhao. Guo Deguang's descendants lived on Fashi Shitou Street and in Baiqi. Guo Dezhao's descendants lived in Xingzhai Village and on Quanzhou Dongjie. This theory connects the Guo clan of Baiqi with the Jundong Guo clan, who live in Quanzhou's Xingzhai Hui Muslim Village.

Thousands of Guo-surname Hui Muslims live in Xingzhai Hui Muslim Village and other areas in Luojiang District, east of Quanzhou city. Their family genealogies state in the preface: "First ancestor Tong, courtesy name Mengliang, sobriquet Leqiao Chushi." A person from Fuyang, Zhejiang, came to Quanzhou in the late Yuan Dynasty, following a commissioner. He enjoyed the beautiful scenery of Quanzhou and settled there. Because Guo Mengliang lived on Dongjie Street in Quanzhou, his descendants became known as the Jun Dong Guo clan. Later, Guo Mengliang's fifth-generation descendants, Guo Yuan and Guo Quan, moved to Xingzhai during the Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty. After that, they spread to various other places.

The "Quanzhou Prefecture Gazetteer" also has a record about Guo Mengliang, the first ancestor of the Jun Dong Guo clan: "Guo Tong, courtesy name Mengliang, alias Leqiao, was originally from Fuyang, Zhejiang." It also says, "In the late Yuan Dynasty, he followed his ancestor Qin, who served as Quanzhou Salt Commissioner." Additionally, the epitaph of Guo Mengliang's wife, Ms. He, records: "She married Guo Mengliang from the same village. Guo, from Fuyang, Zhejiang, served his ancestor Qin, who came to Fujian as an official in the late Yuan Dynasty." "

This states that Guo Mengliang came to Quanzhou from Fuyang, following his ancestor "Qin." The founding ancestor of the Baiqi Guo clan, Guo Deguang, was named "Qin." The Baqi Guo Family Genealogy records: "His official name was Qin, his courtesy name was Deguan. He was a descendant from Guojia Village, Fuyang, Zhejiang." In the local gazetteer, "congzu" refers to a grandfather's brother. So, Guo Mengliang was likely a junior relative of Guo Dezhao. He came to Quanzhou from Fuyang, Zhejiang, with Guo Deguan.

The "Qishan Guo Family Genealogy Preface" of the Baiqi Guo clan states that Guo Deguan first lived outside Xingchun Gate in Quanzhou. He later moved to Fashi. Xingchun Gate was the east gate of Quanzhou's inner city during the Tang Dynasty. After the Yuan Dynasty, it became part of the city. Its location is in the middle section of Quanzhou's East Street. This was exactly where Guo Mengliang, the ancestor of the Guodong Guo clan, lived.

Based on current documents, it is inferred that Guo Deguan and his junior relative Guo Mengliang likely came one after another from Guojia Village, Fuyang, Zhejiang, to settle on Quanzhou's East Street.

4. Guo Deguan Living in Fashi

Fashi Village is on the north bank of the Jinjiang River, in the eastern suburbs of Quanzhou city. It was an important commercial pier for Quanzhou Port during the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Yuan Dynasty, from Meishan to Bantou in Fashi, there was a stone street several li long along the river. In 1346, Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta came to Quanzhou Port. He wrote in *Ibn Battuta's Travels*: "The city's port is one of the world's great ports, perhaps even the largest." We saw about a hundred large ships anchored in the harbor, and countless smaller boats. This port is a huge bay that extends inland, meeting a large river. "

The Jiangkou Pier of Fashi Port is located where the river meets the sea at the end of Shitou Street in Fashi Village. It was a trade hub during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Jiangkou Pier once had eight ferry crossings, but today only Meishan Ferry Pier and Wenxing Ferry Pier remain.

Due to years of silt accumulation, the riverbed rose and formed an islet. Then, real estate development happened. The river's surface no longer looks as it did back then.



Meishan Ferry Pier is built with granite. The existing upper layer was built in modern times. The lower layer shows different periods from the Song to Qing dynasties, built one on top of another, mostly using a header-stretcher bond method.









The Wenxing Ferry Terminal was also built with granite, mainly using staggered joint masonry. The visible remaining section is nearly 20 meters long; the rest has sunk into the river.





Fashi was an important trading port in Quanzhou. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, many Muslim merchants from Arabia and Persia lived there. Even after the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Jin, Xia, and Guo families of Hui Muslims still lived in the area. In 1959, the Quanzhou Maritime Museum's investigation team found several Islamic stone tombs, built in the Sumeru pedestal style, at the "West Cemetery" on Jincuo Mountain in Meishan, Fashi.



5. Guo Deguang's Tombstone – Was the Guo family from Persia?

In 1956, villagers from Shitou Street in Fashi Village were leveling land at a place commonly known as "Liugongqi." They dug up a very large "foreign guest tomb" and turned the area into a garden. Villagers said this tomb had a large square stone platform, divided into upper and lower levels. Each level had two Islamic stone tombs in the Sumeru pedestal style. At the head of the upper level was a tombstone. Villagers broke it into two pieces and carried it back to the village to pave the floor of the collective warehouse.

The Quanzhou Maritime Museum has a Yuan Dynasty Sumeru pedestal-style Islamic stone tomb. The two stone tombs built by Liu Gong might have a similar design.



In 1959 and 1974, an investigation team from the Quanzhou Maritime Museum followed clues from the



The upper right corner of this tombstone has The upper left corner has Below that,

The Chinese characters on the tombstone are easy to explain, but interpreting the Arabic text is very difficult. In the early 1980s, the view of Chen Dasheng, director of the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, became widely accepted. He interpreted the Arabic text as

Professor Wu Youxiong of Quanzhou Normal University offered a completely different interpretation in his work "The Origin of the Guo Clan in Baiqi and Madrasa Education." Wu Youxiong consulted the director of the Arabic department at China National Radio. He then concluded that the inscription was Minnan dialect, spelled in Arabic script, reading "Yin Go Zi Ta-gag Mou." This translates to "Yuan Dynasty Guo Deguan's Tomb." Previous interpreters didn't know Minnan dialect, so they couldn't translate it. There is no evidence that the Guo clan came from Persia.

The method of writing Chinese with Arabic script is called Xiaoerjing or Xiaoerjin, and it is also known as Xiaojing. It was used to annotate Islamic texts during study. The Guo clan genealogy records show that Guo Deguan's tomb was rebuilt many times. This tombstone was likely re-erected during the Qing Dynasty by Guo descendants who were Muslim. The experience of the Guo descendants restarting madrasa education during the Qing Dynasty will be discussed in detail later.

Two: Settling in Baiqi in the Early Ming Dynasty.

One: Did they move to Baiqi to escape ethnic unrest at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty?

Guo Deguan's grandson, Guo Zhongyuan, moved from Fashi to Baiqipu, across from Houzhu Port, during the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty. This area then became the current Baiqi Hui Muslim Township. Many studies say Guo Zhongyuan moved because of wars at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the oppression of Semu people in the early Ming Dynasty. But is that really true?

Between 1357 and 1366, the Ispah Rebellion (Yisibaxi Zhanluan) broke out in Quanzhou. It was organized by Persian Semu people. This caused unprecedented disaster and severe destruction in Quanzhou. After the war, Quanzhou saw a wave of anti-Semu sentiment. Many Semu people were killed in revenge. The "History of the Jin Clan Genealogy of Qingyuan" (Qingyuan Jinshi Zupu Lishi) records: "In this conflict, all people from the Western Regions were wiped out. Those with foreign hair and high noses were mistakenly killed. The gates were closed, and executions continued for three days." Many surviving "foreigners" (fanren) in Quanzhou fled the city to find refuge.

Based on genealogical records, Guo Deguang was likely born around 1283-1303 and died around 1367-1387. Guo Deguang's later years were the peak of anti-Semu sentiment in Quanzhou. However, genealogies generally record that Guo Deguang "registered his household in Fashi by custom in the early Hongwu period." The "Preface to the Qishan Family Genealogy" (Qishan Jiapu Bixu) gives more detail: "In the ninth year of Hongwu (1376), he registered his household by custom and settled in Fashi." 1376 was the second year the Ming army controlled Quanzhou. After the Ming Dynasty took control of Quanzhou, they began to reorganize household registration. Guo Deguang's family was registered into the Ming Dynasty's household system at this time.

Guo Deguang lived in Fashi until he died "of illness." He was buried in Fashi after his death. Guo Deguang's son, Guo Zihong, lived for 49 years and died in 1366. He never left Fashi his whole life and was buried there after his death. His wife, Lady Weng, died in 1372 and was also buried in Fashi. The Potting Genealogy also records that Guo Shiquan, the eldest son of Guo Jiyuan (Guo Zihong's third son who stayed in Fashi), passed the provincial examination in 1411 and became a county official. The record states: "In the ninth year of Yongle (1411), he passed the provincial examination and served in the county, choosing to register in Jiangyou." This shows that Guo Shiquan received at least a stable education at that time.

It seems the Guo Deguang family not only survived the Ispah Rebellion and the subsequent massacres of Semu people without any record of suffering, but they were also registered in the household census after the Ming Dynasty took Quanzhou. Later, they even educated their descendants to become officials through imperial examinations.

2. Reasons for Guo Zhongyuan's Relocation

Let's look at why Guo Zhongyuan moved to Baiqi. The "Biography of Lord Zhongyuan" in the Baiqi Guo Clan Genealogy states that Guo Zhongyuan "accumulated wealth bit by bit and achieved success." He then "chose a place to build a house under Qishan Mountain in the 23rd Dudu of the county." This means Guo Zhongyuan accumulated some capital and decided to start a business elsewhere. The "Preface to the Baiqi Guo Clan Genealogy" also records: "Lord Zhongyuan had five sons and loved the joy of mountains and rivers. He chose a place under Qishan Mountain by the sea in Huiyi, built a house, and lived there." Neither record mentions war or fleeing.

From Guo Deguang onwards, several generations of the Guo family had a custom: the eldest son would go out to establish a new branch, while the youngest son stayed at the old family home. Guo Mengliang, a descendant of Guo Deguang and his younger brother Guo Dezhao, first lived on East Street in Quanzhou. Later, Guo Deguang founded a new settlement in Fashi, and Guo Mengliang stayed on East Street. Guo Deguang had one son, Guo Zihong. Guo Zihong's three sons were: the eldest, Guo Qinggong, who moved to Jiangxi; the second, Guo Zhongyuan, who founded a new branch in Baiqi; and only the third, Guo Jiyuan, who stayed in Poting, Fashi. Guo Zhongyuan originally lived in Daishang (Liandai) in Baiqipu. His four sons also followed this pattern: the eldest son lived in Baiqi, the second son lived in Lichun, the third son went to Zhangzhou, and only the fourth son stayed in Daishang (Liandai). Therefore, Guo Zhongyuan's move from Fashi to Baiqi was likely a result of the common "tree branching out" phenomenon seen in clan societies.

After the turmoil at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Quanzhou's maritime trade was severely damaged. The prosperity of Fashi Port was gone. After the Ming Dynasty began, maritime bans were issued six times during the Hongwu reign. The "Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty" states that "coastal residents were forbidden from privately communicating with foreign countries," "the use of foreign incense and goods by the populace was prohibited," and "not a single plank was allowed to go to sea." It is very likely that the Guo family shifted from commerce to agriculture during this period. Guo Zhongyuan and his eldest brother successively went out to make a living. The eldest brother went far to Jiangxi, and the second brother moved to the opposite bank of Houzhu Port. Only the youngest brother stayed behind to look after the ancestral home and graves, and manage ancestral worship.

Shi Yilong's study, 'A Preliminary Study on the Evolution and Causes of Religious Beliefs of the Hui Muslims in Chendai,' points out that the Ding clan of Chendai, another group of Hui Muslims in Quanzhou, also did not suffer oppression from the Semu people during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. They moved mainly because the early Ming dynasty banned sea trade, which made them shift from business to farming. So, the early Ming dynasty's ban on maritime trade was likely the main reason Guo Zhongyuan came to Baiqi.

3. Baiqipu in the early Ming Dynasty

Baiqipu is on the east side of the Luoyang River mouth in Quanzhou Bay. It sits across the river from Houzhu Port in Quanzhou. The area has large bay tidal flats and few people. Around Baiqipu, eight Han Chinese families lived: Zheng, Liang, Sun, Chen, Li, Yang, Jiang, Fu, and He. All were newcomers who moved from other places at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. There were no local prominent families. Far across the way is Quanzhou Houzhu Port.



After Guo Zhongyuan arrived at Baiqipu, he settled down to farm. The family genealogy Family Genealogy Doubts: Ancestral Land and House Deeds records: In the 14th year of Hongwu (1381), funds were prepared to purchase Sunfu Daitian, or the Sun family reclaimed land, located in Baiqi and other places in the 23rd du of Hui-an. It carried more than 1,000 shi in rent, and part of the autumn grain tax record is illegible. Here, "Sunfu Daitian" refers to the Sun family who lived at the foot of Longtou Mountain at that time. This is today's Daishang (Liandai) Village, and it is also where Guo Zhongyuan lived.



Guo Zhongyuan also built roads. His family genealogy, "Biography of Zhongyuan Gong," states that he "personally laid 300 li (steps) of stone roads for travelers." The Qiaowei stone bridge road was still in good condition in the 1960s.

The Guo family genealogy, "Preface to Re-adhering to Islam," says that Guo Zhongyuan built a mosque in Baiqi. He also collected many Islamic scriptures. The text states: "Since our ancestor settled in Baiqi, he kept thirty volumes of heavenly scriptures, founded a mosque, respected the teachings, and based his life on Allah."

However, Guo descendants who re-embraced Islam during the Qing Dynasty wrote this, and no earlier historical records confirm it.

4. Baiqi Stone Pavilion

The Baiqi Stone Pavilion (Baiqi shiting) was first known as Qiaowei Pavilion. People say Guo Zhongyuan built it during the Ming Dynasty's Hongwu era. It served as a resting pavilion at the Baiqi ferry crossing and is made entirely of granite. The pavilion's roof is umbrella-shaped, and its base is square. The pillars are in two layers: four inner pillars and twelve outer pillars. Together, they form two squares that look like the Chinese character "hui".











Legend has it that in 1417, during his fifth voyage to the Western Seas, Zheng He met Guo Zhongyuan at the Qingjing Mosque. Zheng He was invited to Baiqi, and Guo Zhongyuan welcomed him at the stone pavilion. This is why it's also called Jieguaan Pavilion, or "Welcoming Official Pavilion". But no documents record this event.

The stone pavilion was rebuilt twice during the Qianlong and Guangxu eras. A stele from its 1771 reconstruction (the 36th year of Qianlong) still stands today.



The Baiqi Stone Pavilion appeared in "China Tourism" magazine in November 1986. Back then, people still lived inside it. The pavilion's current look comes from its 2005 reconstruction.



5. Tomb of Guo Zhongyuan and His Wife

Guo Zhongyuan died in 1422 at the age of 75. His wife, Lady Chen, died in 1433 at the age of 82. They are buried at the foot of Longtoushan (Dragon Head Mountain), east of Xiadai Village. People commonly call it the "Stone Lion Cemetery".



The tomb of Guo Zhongyuan and his wife is a classic Song-Yuan Quanzhou Muslim Sumeru-pedestal style stone tomb (xumizuo shi mu). The Guo family called these tombs, which have a stone lid on a stone base, "Jiaomu" (religious tombs). They were also known as "Gaozai Mu" (cake-like tombs), representing Islam.





The stone tomb is made from granite, which is common in Quanzhou, and has five layers. The first layer has carvings of six-legged and ruyi patterns. The second layer shows continuous floral branches. The third layer features inverted lotus petals. On the fourth layer, the Chen family tomb on the left has carvings of lotus flowers and branches. The Guo Zhongyuan tomb on the right has Arabic inscriptions from Quran Chapter 55, verses 26 and 27:

Everything on Earth will perish; Only the essence of your Lord, full of majesty and honor, will remain forever.





This verse appears often on the tomb covers of Song and Yuan dynasty Muslim tombs in Quanzhou. It is also the most common carving on ancient Muslim tombs in Sanya.

A tombstone from the Quanzhou Maritime Museum collection has Quran Chapter 55, verses 26 and 27 inscribed on it:



Two stone tombs sit side by side on a stone platform. Behind them, a horseshoe-shaped retaining wall holds a cloud-and-moon shaped stone stele in its center. This shape also appears on Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic stone tombs in Quanzhou.



Stone carvings on both sides of the tomb look like stone lions and dragon heads.





Today, you can see many Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tombs similar to Guo Zhongyuan's tomb at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, Qingjing Mosque, and Lingshan Holy Tomb. After the Ming Dynasty, the Guo clan of Baiqi and the Ding clan of Chendai in Quanzhou continued to use this style. You can also find similar styles in Ming dynasty Islamic tombs in southeastern regions, like the Puhading Cemetery in Yangzhou and Ding Henian's tomb in Hangzhou.

A typical Quanzhou Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb:



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

The Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) stone tomb at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum is the most magnificent one found to date.



The Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb at Quanzhou's Lingshan Holy Tomb.



The Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb of the descendants of Quanzhou's Chendai Ding clan.



By Hangzhou's West Lake is the Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base (xumizuo) for the great poet Ding Henian. He died in 1424, just two years after Guo Zhongyuan.



An Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base in Yangzhou's Puhading Cemetery.



6. The Tomb of Guo Mengwei and His Wife.

Guo Mengwei was the second son of Guo Shichu, Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son. He died in 1480 at the age of 77. His wife, Ms. Huang, died in 1474 at the age of 69. After their deaths, they were buried right next to Guo Zhongyuan's tomb. Their tombs are also Islamic stone tombs with a Sumeru-style base, but they have no carvings. Behind the tomb is a stele commemorating its renovation in 1983.





Guo Mengwei's tomb, as seen in China Tourism magazine in November 1986.



A pair of stone lions stands next to the tombs of Guo Zhongyuan and Guo Mengwei.



7. The Family Tomb of Guo Shiyuan.

Guo Shiyuan was Guo Zhongyuan's second son. He died in 1407 at the age of 34. After his death, he was buried east of Lichun Village, in a place commonly known as the









Guo Shiyuan's tomb is also an Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base. The front of its lid has an intaglio cloud and moon pattern. The base has continuous branch patterns around its sides.



Next to Guo Shiyuan's tomb are two Islamic stone tombs with a Sumeru-style base. To the east is the tomb of his wife, Ms. Chen. To the west is the tomb of Ms. Zeng, wife of his eldest son, Guo Bangyong. Ms. Chen died in 1457; her stone tomb has no carvings. Ms. Zeng died during the Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty (1465-1487); her stone tomb has continuous branch patterns.





Also, behind Guo Shiyuan's tomb are stone tombs of his descendants:

The tomb of Guo Yiqin, Guo Shiyuan's great-grandson (fourth generation), who died in 1504.

This is the tomb of Guo Yiqin's first wife, Ms. Wang. Her death year is unknown. This is the tomb of Guo Yiqin's second wife, Ms. Li. Her death year is unknown. This is the tomb of Guo Xuyuan, Guo Yiqin's eldest son from the fifth generation. He died in 1526. The tomb of Guo Huaiqin, Guo Yiqin's third younger brother from the fourth generation, and his wife, Ms. Hu, was moved here in 1994. This happened because of construction at their original site. Guo Lianfu, from the fifth generation of the Guo family's Xin branch (fifth branch), and his wife, Ms. Pu, were moved here in 1997. This was due to construction at their original site. The gate to Guo Shiyuan Cemetery was closed when I visited. So, I could not see the tombs further inside.

Tomb of Guo Shichu and his wife.

Guo Shichu was Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son. He died in 1448 (the 13th year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) at the age of 79. His wife, Ms. Wu, died in 1439 (the 4th year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) at the age of 57. After they died, they were buried west of Tianyin Village. This place is commonly called the "Eldest Branch Public Cemetery." It is a four-tiered dolerite Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) stone tomb.



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

In the 1970s, during land reclamation work at Baiqi, a granite stone carving was unearthed. It was a waist-section stone from a Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) altar-style stone tomb. Arabic script on it reads: "He - Allah has supreme power, and you will all return to Him."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

A typical Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) altar-style Islamic stone tomb.



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

It is still unclear if these Islamic tombs were rebuilt by later generations. After the Kangxi Emperor's reign in the Qing Dynasty, the Guo clan of Baiqi once again converted to Islam. Guo Honglong, the first to convert, changed his father Guo Mucheng's Han-style coffin into an Islamic stone tomb. According to the "Genealogy of the Guo Clan's Main Branch":

Lord Mucheng had left the faith earlier. When his son Honglong converted, they renovated the tomb and changed his coffin burial to a Hui Muslim burial. It still looks like a bone tomb today.

Besides this record, no other Muslim stone tombs with a Sumeru pedestal-style tomb base and a tomb cover stone appeared in the Qing Dynasty. Qing Dynasty Muslim tombs changed to use brick or stone construction. The tomb base and cover were made with sanhe ash (a traditional Chinese mortar) to imitate Ming Dynasty tombs.

Three. Clan-ization?

In Professor Wang Ke's 2017 book, "The Vanishing Citizens: Modern China's 'Ethnic' Discourse and the National Identity of Minorities," in the first chapter, "From 'Muslim' to 'Chinese'," Professor Wang Ke introduced us to the Ding clan of Chendai, another large Hui Muslim group in Quanzhou. They achieved "localization" in the Ming Dynasty through "indigenization," "clan-ization," and "imperial examination integration." The Ding clan of Chendai, during their 8th, 9th, and 10th generations, gradually formed strict generational names, compiled genealogies, and achieved great success in the imperial examinations. They eventually stopped believing in Islam.

The Ding clan of Baiqi, however, was very different. Besides the Sumeru pedestal-style stone tombs and descriptions from Qing Dynasty descendants who reconverted about their ancestors' beliefs 400 years ago, the Guo clan of Baiqi in the early Ming Dynasty seemed to have fully integrated into the clan society of the Confucian system in Southern China. This is evident from their ancestral temple and genealogy.

One. Guo Clan Ancestral Temple.

The Guo clan ancestral temple of Baiqi was built by Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son, Guo Shichu, in 1432 (the 7th year of Xuande in the Ming Dynasty). It is commonly known as the "Grand Ancestral Hall" (dacitang). It was originally a "three-bay" traditional Southern Fujian house (dacu). During a renovation in the Qianlong era, it was expanded to a "five-bay" traditional Southern Fujian house (dacu). It was renovated again in 1873 (the 12th year of Tongzhi). In 1898 (the 24th year of Guangxu), the Grand Ancestral Hall (dacitang) was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt with donations from four Guo clan members during the Xuantong era and the early Republic of China period.











Exquisite and intricate Southern Fujian wood carvings.





















In the past, the Baiqi Grand Ancestral Hall (dacitang) enshrined Guo Deguang, Guo Zihong, Guo Zhongyuan and his wife, Guo Zhongyuan's five sons — Guo Shichu, Guo Shiyuan, Guo Shibi, Guo Shimin, Guo Shizhao — and their wives, and 16 ancestral tablets for Guo Mengjun (third generation of the eldest branch) and Guo Mengwei (fourth generation). After renovation in the early Republican era, the ancestral spirit tablets of four donors were also added.



In front of the Guo family temple, there are also the ruins of the 'Wumen' (Meridian Gate).



2. Guo Family Genealogy

Guo Zhongyuan had five sons; four were legitimate, and one was born to a concubine. So, at first, they were divided into four branches: Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi. Later, Lord Xitian established the fifth branch, Xin. This formed the five major branches of the Baiqi Guo clan: Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, and Xin. Among them, the eldest branch, Guo Shichu, lived in Baiqi. The second branch, Guo Shiyuan, and the fifth branch, Guo Shizhao, lived in Lichun. Later, the second branch expanded to Tiancen (Tianyin), Houhai, Doumentou, Liangmu, Houtang, and Jiakeng. The fifth branch lived in Liangmu. The third branch, Guo Shibi, lived in Shandou. The fourth branch, Guo Shimin, stayed in Daishang (Liandai), where his father lived. Later, the fourth branch expanded to Xiadai, Dashan, and Kepu (Jupu).



The Guo Family Genealogy was first compiled in 1436 (the first year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) by Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son, Guo Shichu. In 1436, Guo Shichu wrote the 'Preface to the Family Genealogy'. It mentioned: "If we do not clarify the generations, order the seniority, and distinguish closeness here, then as branches multiply and generations pass, will not clan members meet like strangers?" This clearly stated that compiling the genealogy was to strengthen the cohesion of the 'clan'.

The genealogy also includes the 'Family Instructions of Lord Yixuan' left by Guo Zhongyuan before his death in 1422 (the 20th year of the Yongle reign).

All family heads must strictly observe propriety and law. This is to uphold the family's reputation and establish meritorious achievements. Seniority must be respected, and genders kept separate. Brothers and sisters live in peace, and annual sacrifices are abundant and pure. Children and grandchildren are humble and respectful, never lacking in filial piety. Do not get used to idleness; be diligent in your studies. Follow good deeds diligently and aspire to be bright and wise. Relatives have shown kindness, so do not stop giving them gifts and checking in. Servants perform their duties, and you must distinguish between good and bad among them. What is harvested from the fields and gardens, expenses should be kept in check. Neighbors live in harmony; do not deceive or destroy each other. All these points must not be violated. If you do not follow them, it is called evil. When we meet again in the future, even if you regret it, it will be hard to clear your name.

The text mentions These are all typical expressions of a Confucian clan society.



View of Baiqi Village.



View of Xiadai Village.

3. The third-generation ancestral house (zucu) in Kepu Village.

In 2013, the Quanzhou Underwater Archaeology Land Survey Team found an ancestral house (zucu) in Kepu Village, Baiqi Township. It showed an early style of "brick-and-stone construction" (chuzhuanrushi), a unique architectural feature of Southern Fujian. Red tiles and crushed stones filled the gaps between the granite blocks, laid in a staggered vertical pattern.

Elder Guo Jialin, a descendant of the Guo family, said this was the home of Guo Jianping (1419-1487). Guo Jianping was the third-generation ancestor, and the son of Guo Shiming, who was the fourth son of Guo Zhongyuan.







Three. Abandoning the Faith During the Ming Dynasty's Wanli Era.

In 1607, during the 35th year of the Ming Dynasty's Wanli reign, the Guo family stopped practicing Islam.

The Guo family genealogy, "Shi Hui Bian," states: "The family abandoned the faith by the eighth or ninth generation, likely during the Ming Dynasty's Wanli era." The "eighth or ninth generation" here is counted from Guo Deguang. If counted from Guo Zhongyuan, it would be the "sixth or seventh generation." "

The "Guo Shi Ben Fang Ben Zhi Shi Xi" records: "Our family abandoned the faith, likely in the 35th year of the Ming Dynasty's Wanli reign." "

The Guo family genealogy, "Fu Zun Hui Hui Jiao Xu," explains why they abandoned the faith. It says war caused burning and destruction, and they lost their religious leader (zhangjiao). The text states: "Our family respected it for generations, never forgetting it through the ages." "However, after the fifth generation, they suffered from the ravages of war. The religious leadership was lost. This led them to be influenced by other faiths, and they became ignorant of the true teachings."

The war mentioned here was likely the famous "Jiajing Wokou raids" during the Ming Dynasty. The Jiajing Wokou raids started in 1552, the 31st year of the Jiajing reign. Wang Zhi, a merchant from Huizhou, joined forces with pirate groups from Fujian. They led many "Wokou" (Japanese pirates) to invade Zhejiang and Fujian. Volume 384 of the "Veritable Records of Emperor Shizong of Ming" states: "Pirates from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou lured over ten thousand Japanese, who sailed more than a thousand ships..."

In 1556, the 35th year of the Jiajing reign, the "Wokou" attacked Quanzhou. They captured Chongwu City, 20 kilometers east of Baiqi. This city was built to defend against the Wokou. The Quanzhou Garrison Commander died in battle. Huian County was plundered many times. Battles also broke out repeatedly at Yashan, 5 kilometers north of Baiqi.

Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang led their armies to Quanzhou to fight back in 1563, the 42nd year of the Jiajing reign. The "Wokou rebellion" in Quanzhou finally ended in 1569, the 3rd year of the Longqing reign.

At the same time, Quanzhou's other major Hui Muslim clan, the Chencai Ding clan, also stopped practicing Islam. The tenth-generation ancestor of the Ding clan, Ding Yanxia (1516-1597?), recorded in the clan genealogy, "Ancestral Teachings" (Zujiaoshuo), that during his childhood, the Chencai Ding clan still followed Islamic rules. These included namaz, fasting, not eating pork, ritual slaughter, and burial in the ground. But by the late 16th century, when Ding Yanxia wrote his works, the Chencai Ding clan had switched to wooden coffins. They no longer performed namaz, did not fast, did not perform ritual slaughter, and ate pork. After this, many members of the Chencai Ding clan passed the imperial examinations and built many ancestral halls. Islam completely disappeared in the 17th century.

Ding Yanxia's "Discourse on Clan Gathering" (Zongjushuo) from 1562 states that the Chencai Ding clan suffered a severe raid by Japanese pirates (Wokou) in 1561. They had heavy losses. Many Ding clan members moved into the city to escape the disaster. The Chencai Ding clan's eventual abandonment of Islam was likely related to the Jiajing Wokou raids.

Today, the temples of the Chencai Ding clan:



In fact, Islam was in decline throughout Quanzhou between the 16th and 17th centuries. The "Record of the Reconstruction of Qingjing Mosque" (Chongxiu Qingjing Si Beiji) from 1607 states: "Therefore, the Qingjing (Muslim) talk of heaven is not as good as the Buddhist talk of hell. Even those families who once upheld the faith now turn their backs and abandon it. This is why the religion declined and the mosque fell into disrepair. It is due to a gradual loss of direction, not the original intent of the religion!" "

The phrase mentioned here, "Even those families who once upheld the faith now turn their backs and abandon it," most likely refers to the Baiqi Guo clan and the Chencai Ding clan, who had recently left Islam.

Four. Returning to Islam during the Kangxi Reign of the Qing Dynasty.

1. Moving to Qingjing Mosque.

In 1709 (the 48th year of Kangxi's reign), Chen Yougong, the Grand Commandant (Zuodudu) and Regional Commander (Zongbingguan) of Fujian's Ting, Yan, and Shao areas, came to Quanzhou. He revived the faith and started a school at Qingjing Mosque for madrasa education. At that time, Guo Honglong, the eighth-generation member of the fourth branch of the Guo clan, moved from Baiqipu Hecuo to live at Qingjing Mosque. He did this due to "the division of strong trunk and weak branches," a clan internal division. He then converted to Islam. After Honglong converted, more and more Guo clan members who did business in Quanzhou city came to Qingjing Mosque to convert. As the number of converts grew, a mosque was built in Daishang Village, where the fourth branch of the Guo clan lived. This happened with Chen Yougong's support. According to the Fenyang Guo Family Tree of Branches Relocating to Tonghuai Street in Quanzhou:

During the Kangxi Jichou year (1709), Governor Chen Yougong served as a military official in Quanzhou. He re-established the faith. The Baiqi uncle and nephew came to the city to trade, and many people re-entered the faith. Mr. Chen built the Daishang Mosque.

After Guo Honglong entered the faith, most of his descendants moved to live near Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque. Others lived at Daishang Mosque. The Fenyang Guo Family Tree of Branches Relocating to Tonghuai Street in Quanzhou states that during the Qianlong era, Guo Honglong's grandson, Guo Shifu, lived near Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque. Another grandson, Guo Shili, lived at Daishang Mosque. The family genealogy "Biography of Yizhai Gong" records that Guo Shifu, in 1794 (the 59th year of Qianlong), renovated the mosque with Bai Yunhan, the Deputy General of Zhangzhou Left Camp.

Qingjing Mosque was first built in 1009 (the second year of Dazhong Xiangfu in the Northern Song Dynasty). Ahmad from Shiraz, Persia, rebuilt it in 1309 (the second year of Zhida in the Yuan Dynasty). Qingjing Mosque was originally named Ashab Mosque, which means "Mosque of the Holy Companions." The name "Qingjing Mosque" originally belonged to another mosque built in the Southern Song Dynasty, south of Quanzhou city. Later, steles from the original Qingjing Mosque were moved to the Ashab Mosque, causing the names of the two mosques to become confused.

During the Kangxi era, when the Baiqi Guo family re-entered the faith, Qingjing Mosque's main prayer hall, Fengtiantan, had already collapsed from long-term disrepair. Some Muslims, including the Baiqi Guo family, built houses and lived within the Fengtiantan ruins.







In 1936, Imam Zhang Yuguang, a graduate of Chengda Normal School, came to oversee Islamic affairs in Quanzhou. In 1937, he published "Islam's Entry into China and the General Situation of Islam in Quanzhou" in "Yuehua" magazine. He wrote that four Baiqi Guo households still lived inside the Qingjing Mosque's main prayer hall at that time.

This is Qingjing Mosque, as photographed by "China Tourism" in November 1986. The four Baiqi Guo households lived here until they were moved out during the 1986 renovation.



After Fengtiantan collapsed, Mingshantang, on the north side, became the prayer hall. In 1818, it was rebuilt as a traditional courtyard house (siheyuan). In 1871, it was rebuilt again as a small three-room building with Southern Fujian (Min-nan) characteristics. In 1952, it was rebuilt as a simple tiled flat-roof house with a cement and wood frame. In 1998, it was rebuilt to restore its 1871 appearance.





The Guo family genealogy "Preface to Re-adhering to Islam" states that after the Guo family re-entered the faith, over a hundred people joined Islam. This happened under the leadership of the eighth-generation descendant Guo Sizhi and the tenth-generation descendant Guo Zhiquan, and after education from Imams "Master Zhuang" and "Master Ge." Most of these new converts came from the fourth branch, to which Guo Honglong belonged.

The eighth-generation descendant Sizhi Gong, the tenth-generation descendant Zhiquan Gong, and their junior relative Jing Gong, along with several others of their generation, had already received teachings from Master Zhuang. They were then transformed by Master Ge. As a result, over a hundred people in our clan re-adhered to this faith. Master Ge's sincere intention was to feel Allah's great grace. He traced back to the ancestors' tradition of sincere fasting and namaz, and explained the error of raising and eating pigs.

But in 1807 (the 12th year of Jiaqing), Guo Zhaofen also wrote in the family genealogy, in the essay 'On the Renovation of the Yizhai Guo Gong Tomb,' that the Baiqi Guo clan still had not translated Islamic scriptures. He wrote: 'The scriptures compiled by the religion are like a guiding rope, but their sounds and characters are different, and they remain untranslated to this day. Mr. Li Zhongyi appreciated that they were not translated, finding in this the ancient truth.' "

2. Qing Dynasty Islamic Stone Tombs

After the Guo clan Muslims rejoined Islam in the Qing Dynasty, they no longer used the Sumeru pedestal-style stone tombs from the Ming Dynasty. At 'Haitanbian,' west of Houhai Village in Baiqi Township, are the tombs of Guo Shuxian, from the 15th generation, and his three sons. Guo Shuxian died in 1875, at the age of 67. The tomb is a platform made of sanhetu (a traditional Chinese mortar of lime, sand, and clay). On the platform are two sanhetu tombs. A granite carving is set horizontally in front of the tomb table. It has the 'General Creed' of Islam inscribed on it: 'I believe in Allah. He has all noble names and all virtues. I accept all His laws.' "



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

Modern tombs of the Baiqi Guo clan near the Lingshan Holy Tomb.





5. Islam and Local Beliefs

1. Regulations Prohibiting Folk Buddhist and Taoist Beliefs

When the Guo clan rejoined Islam in the Qing Dynasty, folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs were already thriving in Baiqi. Because of this, the patriarchs of the four branches of the Guo clan, who followed Islam, tried to regulate customs and curb the growth of folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs.

Guo Zhaofen, a descendant of Guo Honglong, included a series of regulations he wrote to curb Buddhist and Taoist beliefs in the revised 'Guo Clan Genealogy' of 1808 (the 13th year of Jiaqing). These regulations included 4 chapters and 48 articles: 'Listing Warnings to Descendants Against Reckless Talk About Ancestors' Religion,' 'Listing Prohibitions to Instruct Descendants,' 'Listing Items Not Used in Ancestor Worship,' and 'Listing Funeral Regulations and Prohibitions.' These regulations show some aspects of the Baiqi Guo clan's religious beliefs in the early 19th century.

The first chapter, 'Listing Warnings to Descendants Against Reckless Talk About Ancestors' Religion,' explains some misunderstandings that later generations of the Baiqi Guo clan had about Islam. These include:

One rule states,

Another rule is,

A rule says,

The second chapter,

The family must not use merit-making rituals to send spirit money (mingjin), spirit paper (mingzhi), paper effigies (mingren), or any paper offerings to the deceased. "

The family must not use nuns to perform rituals for

The family must not use divine or Buddhist healing methods.

The family must not use popular sorcerers for

The family must not use spirit money (mingjin) or spirit silver (mingyin) after ancestor worship. Guo Zhaofen later added a note,

The family must not use cremation or jar (urn) burial.

The family must not use string puppet shows (xianxi), which are marionette shows. Guo Zhaofen pointed out, "

The third chapter,

Ancestor worship must not use drums or music.

Wear plain clothes for rituals.

For rituals, when slaughtering animals and preparing tools, you must follow religious rules.

For rituals, do not use aquatic animals that do not lay eggs.

For rituals, do not use shellfish or crustaceans.

Do not use pork at home.

Chapter Four, titled 'List of Appropriate Prohibitions for Funeral Systems,' forbids folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs during funerals. These include:

Do not use drums and music at funerals.

Do not use Taoist or Buddhist guides for funerals.

Do not offer paper money at funerals.

Do not erect banners at funerals, as this has become a bad practice.

2. Islam and Confucianism: Neither Betraying Nor Rigidly Adhering to Faith.

Read the books of sages, learn from their deeds, and neither betray nor rigidly adhere to your faith. Guo Zhaofen quoted this view from Confucian scholar Ding Zishen in the Jiaqing edition of the Qing Dynasty's 'Guo Family Genealogy'. Ding Zishen came from another branch of Hui Muslims in Quanzhou, the Chengdai Ding clan. He was a key figure in the Confucianization of the Chengdai Ding clan during the late Ming Dynasty.

Guo Zhaofen's 'Debate on Adapting to Hui Customs,' written in 1807 (the 12th year of Jiaqing) and found in the 'Guo Family Genealogy,' begins by listing three different religious beliefs. The first type is 'following Confucianism while also incorporating Taoist and Buddhist teachings,' which means Han customs. The second type was "Hui Muslims who also followed the Confucian way," referring to the Jin, Ding, Xia, Ma, and Die families in Quanzhou city who kept their Islamic faith. The third type was "Confucians who kept the Hui Muslim teachings," referring to the Guo clan. From this, we can see that the Baiqi Guo clan at that time already separated themselves from the Muslims in Quanzhou city. They believed they primarily followed Confucianism and kept Islam as a way to preserve their ancestors' customs.

In the four regulations set by Guo Zhaofen, it is also clear that these rules were not just to maintain the Islamic faith itself. They also aimed to make descendants follow their ancestors' religious customs through Confucian thought. The regulations repeatedly stressed that following their ancestors' Islamic customs was to follow the Confucian way:

"Previous generations already experienced this. Later generations of descendants should be warned not to forget family rules and not to bring shame to the Confucian way." "

"All close to Daoist, Buddhist, or evil cults should be completely rejected. The Confucian way should be upheld."

When sacrificing to ancestors, Guo Zhaofen wrote a rule: "Use Confucian rites for sacrifices as well." He later explained, "The pure and true religion (Islam) follows the rites of ancestral worship. But now, our clan first performs ancestral worship and then sacrifices." This further shows how the Baiqi Guo clan in the Qing Dynasty used both Confucianism and Islam.

Six. The Final Disappearance of Islam.

In the late Qing Dynasty, the mosque in Daishang Village collapsed due to long-term disrepair. The mosque then moved to the more remote Dashan Village, where the village's imam, "Uncle Tong," led religious affairs. "Uncle Tong" passed on the role to "Caoniao," who then passed it on to "Uncle Mao." These three generations of imams were all members of the Guo clan from Dashan Village and belonged to the same close family branch. "Uncle Tong" and "Caoniao" both studied at the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou. "Uncle Mao"'s name was Guo Xingfa. He was an imam trained by the Guo clan themselves.

From the 1930s to the 1940s, Dashan Village had over 30 Muslims. They were mostly clan members from the imam's own family branch, and nearly half of them were women. Every Friday, the Dashan Village Mosque holds Jumu'ah prayer. The imam recites the Quran in Arabic, then preaches Islamic teachings in the Minnan dialect. Whenever they slaughter cattle, they always ask the imam to recite scriptures.

At that time, Muslims in Dashan Village did not know much about Islamic teachings. Some also worshipped folk Buddhist and Taoist deities like Guan Di. The imam did not interfere.

In November 1986, China Tourism magazine photographed a handwritten Quran in Baiqi.



Guo Zhichao's "The Status of Islam in the Cultural Changes of Baiqi Hui Muslims," Guo Qiujun's "Hui'an Hui Muslims - Baiqi Guo," and Ye Wencheng's "Funeral Rites and Characteristics of Hui'an Baiqi Hui Muslims" recorded funeral rituals in Dashan Village during the 1930s and 1940s.

After a person died, their clothes were removed. A white sheet covered the body, which was then ritually cleansed. After the body was washed, male deceased were wrapped in white cloth. Female deceased wore a white long gown with a front opening, a white high-top hat, and white long socks. Three white cloths were used to tie the calves, abdomen, and chest separately. Then the eldest son carried the body to the ancestral hall of their branch, which served as a temporary mourning hall. The mourning bed was made of two long benches and three planks. An incense burner was placed on the mourning table. On both sides, there was a plate with twenty-four pieces of fried oil pastries (youxiang) made from rice flour. Some grieving families also placed a few plates of vegetarian dishes. At this time, the imam wore a blue pointed six-panel hat and a blue long gown. He sat cross-legged facing west on a folding chair in front of the mourning table and began to read the Quran.

Before the funeral procession, the deceased was placed into a temporary coffin (bian'guan). This coffin had wooden sides and a removable bottom. During the funeral procession, the temporary coffin was covered with a coffin shroud. The imam led the way, followed by three children. Four people carried the coffin behind them. Filial sons and daughters, wearing white mourning clothes and white mourning hats, followed. Finally, the mourners, who wore white cloth around their waists or arms (yaobai), followed.

After arriving at the cemetery, spices were sprinkled under the stone coffin. The stone coffin was made of four stone slabs, two long and two short. Its bottom was open to the earth. Four people stood at the four corners of the grave. They pulled open a red carpet to cover the grave. Then the white cloth strips on the deceased are lifted, the bottom board of the simple coffin is pulled out, and the deceased falls into the grave. Five pieces of red earth are placed on the deceased's head, both hands, and both feet. Seven stone slabs (qixingban) are placed on top. Earth is piled on, and some families will later cover it with mortar.

Before the 1940s, many Guo families in Baiqi had the custom of inviting an imam for the deceased. They handled the body and performed a quick burial according to Islamic customs. At that time, Baiqi Village hired Imam Tie Kaichen from Shouxian, Anhui. He mainly led religious ceremonies for funerals and ancestral worship. When Imam Tie was not there, a Guo family member named Guo Xiuye had studied scriptures for a few days with Imam Liu from Tianjin. His family had thirty volumes of Islamic scriptures. Imam Tie passed away during the Anti-Japanese War. From then on, the Guo family in Baiqi only had one imam left, Guo Xingfa. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Quanzhou Baiqi — Guo Hui Muslims and Islamic History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the mid-1940s, Imam Guo Xingfa passed away. According to Huang Qiurun's book The Evolution of Customs Among the Baiqi Hui Muslims, after Imam Guo died, his family sent people to the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou to. The account keeps its focus on Quanzhou Muslims, Guo Hui Muslims, Islamic History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In the mid-1940s, Imam Guo Xingfa passed away. According to Huang Qiurun's book The Evolution of Customs Among the Baiqi Hui Muslims, after Imam Guo died, his family sent people to the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou to invite Imam Zhang Yuguang and Imam Cao Shaolun to lead the funeral. They also asked Muslims Ma Kangjian, Guo Sansheng, Guo Songling, and Huang Jianzhao to perform the ritual washing of the body (maiti yongshui). Additionally, they invited over ten cousins to go to the Qingjing Mosque to carry the coffin (tabu).

After Imam Guo passed away, the funeral customs of the Baiqi Guo clan changed from chanting scriptures to holding the scriptures, and later to requesting the scriptures. This meant the grieving family would borrow a Quran from a clan member who kept one, placing it in front of the memorial altar. During the funeral procession, a young boy would carry the Quran at the very front.

During the Qingming Festival in 2015, the Baiqi Guo clan placed the Quran on the offering table while paying respects to their ancestors at the Guo family temple:







With the passing of Imam Guo, the practice of Islam among the Baiqi Guo clan came to an end. In the 1950s, the production team turned the Dashan Village mosque into a warehouse to store grain and farm tools, and eventually, it was converted into a private home. The last villagers in Dashan Village who avoided pork also stopped this practice in the 1950s, though some villagers still used stone coffin burials. In 1984, Guo Xijin's wife, Zeng Ying, passed away at the age of 95; she was the last person from the Guo family in Baiqi to be buried in a stone coffin.

7. Living without halal, dying with halal

If you keep the oil pure, your children and grandchildren will prosper. This is an important saying among the Guo family of Baiqi.

During the Qing Dynasty, many members of the Guo clan still followed the ancestral rule of not eating pork. As mentioned earlier, in 1807 (the 12th year of the Jiaqing reign), Guo Zhaofen ordered that pork be banned in the family in his section of the clan genealogy titled 'List of Items Not to Be Used for Ancestral Offerings'.

The 1807 (12th year of the Jiaqing reign) Guo Clan Genealogy records: 'According to clan rules, whenever there is a sacrificial ceremony, even for those who have left the faith and are required to perform sacrifices, the offerings must be pure and clean. Do not use unclean items; discard anything that is forbidden.' This is still the case today for ceremonies at both the main ancestral hall and the smaller ancestral halls, as it honors the intentions of our ancestors and is a way to show filial piety. "

Later, the village elders repeated: "Since the living eat pork, it is hard to change them, but the sacrifices for our ancestors must remain clean." The living have turned away from the ancestral faith, but the dead must return to halal ways. "

This custom of eating pork while alive but avoiding it after death has continued to this day. In the final days before a sick or elderly person passes away, the family switches to a clean diet and provides plenty of tea to help cleanse their stomach and intestines. After a death, the family washes all their cooking and eating utensils and begins a period of avoiding oil, which specifically means avoiding any pork products. This period of avoiding oil usually lasts for 7, 14, or 49 days. If someone accidentally eats pork or lard during the funeral period, they must immediately drink tea made from the tea leaves placed next to the Quran on the altar. It is believed this clears away misfortune and prevents mouth sores.

Besides the mourning period, families must also strictly avoid oil when paying respects to ancestors, ensuring all offerings are clean and pure. Since the 1990s, the Guo family of Baiqi has held an ancestor worship ceremony at their family temple every year around the Qingming Festival. The offerings must be completely free of oil, and some must also avoid "four-unlike" foods like squid, crab, and shrimp. The offerings must include a whole lamb and fried dough (youxiang). The utensils and cookware used for ancestor worship must be a dedicated set. They are cleaned, stored in plastic bags, and only taken out for use during the ceremony.

Guo Bangyi, the head of the Guo family temple management group, during an interview at the 2015 Qingming ancestor worship ceremony:







The Sixiao Hall in Xiadai Village is an Islamic-style building inscribed with "Firmly believe in Islam, advocate halal," but it is actually a place for ancestor worship.







Modern Guo family graves are built in the style of the Ming Dynasty.









Beyond the Baiqi area, the Baiqi Guo clan members who moved elsewhere also keep the rule of eating only what is slaughtered alive and never eating what dies of natural causes. The Guo clan in Lixin Village, Tuzhai Township, Hui'an County moved there three or four hundred years ago, and they still strictly follow the rule of avoiding oil during funerals. The Baiqi Guo clan who moved to Guanqiao in Jinjiang hundreds of years ago broke the no-oil rule in the 1950s and 1960s, but after sending people to pay respects to their ancestors in Dashan Village, Baiqi, in the 1980s, they returned to observing the no-oil rule.

In 1958, Xiao Yongtai, chairman of the China Islamic Youth Association, went to Lukang, Taiwan, for research. He wrote that some Baiqi Guo families in Lukang still kept the Quran and did not eat pork for forty days after a death:

There are now over three hundred households of Guo-surnamed Muslims in Lukang, and those over sixty years old all know they are Muslims, with a few families still keeping the Quran.

After a fellow Muslim passes away, people must avoid eating pork for forty days, a tradition that still preserves the customs of Islam.

The Muslim pharmacy (huihui yaodian) in Baiqi.



The beef shop called Huiwei Niuqiang is actually not halal.



The Baiqi village committee building with its Arabic-style dome.



Although the Guo family in Baiqi no longer practices Islam, they still keep their Islamic memories. This makes them a very important case study for researching how minority group beliefs change over time.





Some of the information in this article comes from "Research on the Baiqi Hui Muslims," "Selected Research Papers on Islam in Quanzhou," and "Ancient Ethnic Minority Books of Fujian Province: Hui Muslim Family Genealogies." view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This is Part 1 of Quanzhou Muslim Heritage: The Ding Hui Muslims of Chendai. It preserves the original travel notes and historical details, with images kept in their original order. It is useful for readers interested in Quanzhou Muslims, Hui Muslims, Islamic History.

The Ding family of Chendai is a branch of Hui Muslims living in Chendai Town, Jinjiang, south of Quanzhou city. They arrived in Quanzhou during the Yuan Dynasty, and between the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, they moved to Chendai, abandoned commerce for farming, and during the mid-Ming Dynasty, they abandoned their Islamic faith through 'clan-building' and 'imperial examination-oriented' processes; today, most follow the traditional religions of the Minnan region. After the Republic of China era, a small number of the Chendai Ding family returned to the Islamic faith and, after the 1980s, established a mosque and an Islamic association.

Today, one can still see traces left by the Chendai Ding family from various historical periods in Quanzhou. Next to the Lingshan Holy Tomb in the east of Quanzhou city, one can see several traditional Islamic tombstones of the Chendai Ding family from the early Ming Dynasty, which still bear Quranic verses from exactly 600 years ago. In Chendai Town, one can see a series of ancestral halls and ancestral homes built by the Ding family since the Ming and Qing dynasties, which are symbols of the clan-building of the Chendai Ding family. In addition, next to the Ding family ancestral hall is the Chendai Mosque, built in 1990, which is a testament to the small number of Chendai Ding family members who have returned to the Islamic faith since the Republic of China era.

Table of Contents

I. Two Hundred Years of Islam — The Ding Family Cemetery

1. Joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations

2. Tomb of the fourth generation Ding Shan and his wife Zhuang Xiniang

3. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Mabao and his wives, Pu and Wang

4. Tombs of the fifth generation Ding Guanbao, sixth generation Ding Kuan, and sixth generation Ding Min

5. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Fubao and his wife Shi Dingniang

6. Tomb of the seventh generation Ding Lun and his wife Zhuang

II. Gradual Change to Conform to Rites — The Ding Family Ancestral Halls

1. The Ding Family Grand Ancestral Hall

2. Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall

3. Fenxi Ding Gong Ancestral Residence

4. Ding Yanzhong's Jinshi Residence

III. The Reappearance of Islam — Chendai Mosque

I. Two Hundred Years of Islam — The Ding Family Cemetery

According to the genealogy, the first ancestor of the Chendai Ding family, Ding Jin (1251-1298), was originally from Suzhou and settled in Quanzhou due to trade. By the time of the third ancestor, Ding Kui (1298-1379), he brought the fourth ancestor, Ding Shan (1343-1420), from Quanzhou city to Chendai, more than twenty li (a unit of distance) south of the city, but the third ancestor traveled between Suzhou and Quanzhou for trade for a long time and did not settle down until the early Ming Dynasty, when the fourth ancestor truly settled in Chendai.

There are many reasons for the Ding family's move to Chendai, the main one being that the Quanzhou port declined at the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, trade was cut off, and the Ding family had no business to conduct, so they chose to abandon commerce for farming, coming to Chendai for tidal flat work and rice cultivation.

The Islamic faith of the Chendai Ding family was maintained for ten generations, spanning more than two hundred years from the 13th to the 16th century. The tenth generation Ding Yanxia, born around 1517, recorded in his 'Zujiao Shuo' (Discourse on Ancestral Religion) the Islamic customs he experienced in his childhood in great detail. However, according to calculations, by the eighth to ninth generations, the Chendai Ding family no longer valued scripture education:

'The shroud is not layered, the coffin is not made of wood, and burial does not exceed three days. The mound is like a horse's mane and shallow, mourning clothes are made of cotton, no ancestral tablets are set up for worship, and no offerings are arranged. For prayer times, at sunset, they gather and face west to pray to Allah. They fast once a year, eating when they see the stars in the morning and evening, and remaining hungry throughout the day. They offer only incense and flowers to the divine, do not set up wine or fruit, and do not burn paper offerings. They recite the pure scriptures, imitating the transmitted foreign sounds, without understanding the meaning, nor seeking to understand it, and use them for both auspicious and inauspicious occasions. Animals must be slaughtered by their own butchers before being eaten, and pork is not consumed. They bathe constantly, for they dare not approach the divine otherwise. They prefer cotton clothing over silk, generally valuing brightness and cleanliness. This is what I, Xia, saw in my youth. ”

The existing Islamic relics of the Chendai Ding family are the several Ming Dynasty Islamic tombstones within the Lingshan Holy Tomb.

1. Joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations

Before the Ding family established their base in Chendai, the first, second, and third generations were all buried at Lingshan, east of Quanzhou city. Lingshan was the main burial area for Muslims in Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties, built in 1162 by the Song Dynasty Arab merchant Shi Nawei. It was called the 'Foreign Merchant Tomb' during the Song and Yuan dynasties.

After the fourth generation Ding Shan established the base in Chendai, he entrusted the ancestral tombs to others for management. Later, the son of the second manager, Xu Fen, named Xu Fu, continuously encroached on the ancestral tomb land, and the Ding family endured it in silence. It was not until 18 years later, in 1505, that the eighth generation Ding Yi passed the imperial examination and became a Jinshi, and after returning to his hometown, he filed a lawsuit and finally reclaimed the ancestral tomb land.

During the Chongzhen period of the Ming Dynasty, the descendants of the Ding family buried the first, second, and third generation ancestors together. In 1993, due to the need for road construction, a large number of Chendai Ding family tombstones were moved from outside the East Gate of Quanzhou, Luyuan, and other places to the Lingshan Holy Tomb; the current joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations was also rebuilt during this period. The tombstones and monuments seen now are not the originals. The Chendai Ding family has legends from the Ming Dynasty that their ancestor was the Yuan Dynasty politician Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din, so the cemetery is inscribed with words stating they are descendants of a saint.



















2. Tomb of the fourth generation Ding Shan and his wife Zhuang Xiniang

Ding Shan (1343-1420), courtesy name Yanren, pseudonym Ren'an, followed his father from Quanzhou to Chendai at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and officially established the base in Chendai at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, founding the Chendai Ding clan. His wife, Zhuang Xiniang, courtesy name Runxiu, was the sixth-generation granddaughter of Zhuang Xia, who was enfeoffed as a founding baron and junior preceptor in the Southern Song Dynasty. The Zhuang family was prominent in the late Southern Song Dynasty but gradually declined after the Yuan Dynasty, and their relatives left Quanzhou one after another; only Zhuang Xiniang's father still lived in the Zhuang mansion south of the city. At that time, the Ding family and the Zhuang family were neighbors, so they became husband and wife, and shortly after the marriage, Ding Shan and his father moved to Chendai. The Ding family's move to Chendai was likely related to Zhuang Xiniang, because near Chendai at that time was Qingyang, where the Zhuang clan lived, a powerful clan known as the 'Qingyang Zhuang family'.

Ding Shan and Zhuang Xiniang were originally buried in Luyuan, east of Quanzhou city; 'Luyuan' means 'Paradise', which is the 'Garden' (Jannah) in the Quran. The tomb is a traditional Islamic chlorite tomb, with two sumeru-pedestal style five-layer tombstones placed on a sumeru-pedestal altar platform. The first layer of the tombstone has six gnomon feet, carved with ruyi (auspicious) patterns; The second layer is carved with continuous scrolling patterns; The third layer is carved with overlapping lotus patterns; The fourth layer is carved with Quranic verses; The fifth layer is a curved arch-shaped tombstone top. Behind the tombstone is a monument erected in 1910.

The verses on the tombstone are from the Quran, Chapter 2, Verse 255.









3. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Mabao and his wives, Pu and Wang

Ding Mabao (1366-1431), courtesy name Shilong, pseudonym Yi'an, was the eldest son of the fourth generation Ding Shan who established the base in Chendai, and the founding ancestor of the main branch of the Chendai Ding family; he was originally buried with his two wives in the Chengui Baoxue (a geomantically auspicious site) on Daping Mountain, east of Quanzhou city.



4. Tombs of the fifth generation Ding Guanbao, sixth generation Ding Kuan, and sixth generation Ding Min

Ding Guanbao (1369-1436), courtesy name Shifu, pseudonym Chengzhai, was the second son of Ding Shan and the founding ancestor of the second main branch of the Chendai Ding family. He was originally buried at the foot of Shuiuniulin, east of Quanzhou city.

Ding Kuan (1395-1446), courtesy name Tingyu, pseudonym Longyin, was the second son of Ding Guanbao and was originally buried to the left of Ding Shan's tomb in Luyuan Mountain.

Ding Min (1407-1456), courtesy name Tingxue, pseudonym Yizhai, was the fourth son of Ding Guanbao and was originally buried at the foot of Shuiuniulin, east of Quanzhou city. Ding Min was the earliest local worthy among the Chendai Ding family to promote literary education.







5. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Fubao and his wife Shi Dingniang

Ding Fubao (1375-1432), courtesy name Shizhang, pseudonym Yingjie, was the third son of Ding Shan and the founding ancestor of the third main branch of the Chendai Ding family, buried at Lingshan, east of Quanzhou city. The tomb consists of two sumeru-pedestal stone tombs placed on a traditional Islamic sumeru-pedestal altar platform, with swastikas and double lions playing with a pearl carved on the waist of the platform.











6. Tomb of the seventh generation Ding Lun and his wife Zhuang

Ding Lun (1442-1485), courtesy name Zhaorui, was the third son of the sixth generation Ding Xin.







For information on the Ming Dynasty Islamic tombstones of the Chendai Ding family, see 'Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings'.



II. Gradual Change to Conform to Rites — The Ding Family Ancestral Halls

By the mid-16th century, the religious customs of the Chendai Ding family had undergone significant changes; Ding Yanxia recorded in 'Zujiao Shuo':

'Later, shrouds were layered, coffins were made of wood, and burials were delayed. Mourning clothes were half cotton, ancestral tablets were set up, mounds were large, offerings were arranged, animals were fat, and prayers to Allah were rare. Fasting disappeared, and animals did not have to be slaughtered by their own butchers. Clothing was made of silk, bathing was not required for approaching the divine, wine and fruit were set out, and cotton and silk were burned for other gods, though not for ancestors. The offering of incense and flowers remained as before. ”

Finally, by the late 16th century, the Chendai Ding family had completely abandoned Islam; 'Zujiao Shuo' records:

'Now, when worshipping ancestors, some burn cotton and silk, animals do not have to be slaughtered by their own butchers, mourning clothes are all made of hemp without cotton, burials are delayed for more than ten years, Taoist priests and Buddhist monks are used for auspicious and inauspicious occasions, and pork is eaten. ”

According to folklore, the Chendai Ding family began eating pork in 1592 when the eleventh generation Ding Qijun, who became a Jinshi, was gifted food by the Wanli Emperor. However, the statement by the twelfth generation Ding Qing in 'Jiyi Jiyan' (Records of Sacrificial Rites) in 1698 is more credible:

'Fenxi Gong (Ding Yi) was the first to enter the official ranks, and he worshipped his ancestors according to the rites of a high official, not daring to violate the Islamic faith. But the three generations of Huai Gong (Ding Zishen), Wuting Gong (Ding Rijn), and Zhechu Gong (Ding Qijun) all passed the imperial examinations, and the family's reputation grew, while the Islamic faith almost ceased. ”

The Chendai Ding family began their official careers starting with the eighth generation Ding Yi, and by the tenth generation, 20 people had become Jinshi; these people used Confucian ethics and principles as their standard everywhere, which had an important impact on the Chendai Ding family and accelerated the dissolution of the Islamic faith. This is what Ding Yanxia referred to as 'gradually conforming to the rites', living according to Confucian behavioral standards. Wang Ke's book 'The Vanishing "Nationals"' provides an in-depth discussion of the 'clan-building' and 'imperial examination-oriented' processes of the Chendai Ding family; interested friends can take a look.



1. The Ding Family Grand Ancestral Hall

The most important sign of the Chendai Ding family's departure from Islam was the reconstruction of the Ding family ancestral hall in 1561. The early Ding family ancestral hall is presumed to have been built in the early 15th century, was destroyed by war in 1561, was rebuilt shortly after under the leadership of Ding Yi and Ding Zishen, and was rebuilt and expanded again by Ding Rijn in 1599 to its current scale.

The ancestral hall enshrines the spirit tablets of the first to fifth generation ancestors and ancestors who held titles and merits, but initially, there were no spirit tablets; instead, there were small wooden screens handwritten by the eighth generation Ding Yi (1472-1521) listing the first to fourth generation ancestors.

In 1561, the Ding family ancestral hall was destroyed due to 'Japanese pirate disturbances', and in 1562, Ding Yanxia initiated the formulation of the 'Sacrificial Covenant', which officially determined the way the Chendai Ding family worshipped their ancestors. The 'Sacrificial Covenant' mentions 'kneeling in order to offer incense, bowing four times to the spirits, and kneeling to offer wine', which was already completely in line with traditional Chinese customs.











In addition to the Grand Ancestral Hall, the Chendai Ding family has many small ancestral halls and ancestral homes for worshipping ancestors. The 6 small ancestral halls are the 'Yi'an Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the fifth generation Ding Mabao, the 'Zhongzhai Ding Family Ancestral Hall' for the sixth generation Ding Xin, the 'Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the sixth generation Ding Min, the 'Dunpu Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the seventh generation Ding Chang, the 'Gusu Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the eighth generation Ding Gui, and the 'Daozhen Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the twelfth generation Ding Shibo. The establishment of small ancestral halls is usually for the prosperity of the descendants of a specific branch, built to bring honor to the ancestors.

Below the small ancestral halls are ancestral homes, which enshrine the ancestors of the branch and their descendants, formed as descendants multiplied and families branched out; there are about 200 of them.

2.

Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall

The sixth generation Ding Min (1407-1456), courtesy name Tingxue, pseudonym Yizhai, was the earliest local worthy among the Chendai Ding family to promote literary education. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This travel note introduces Quanzhou Muslim Heritage: The Ding Hui Muslims of Chendai. The Ding family of Chendai is a branch of Hui Muslims living in Chendai Town, Jinjiang, south of Quanzhou city. It is useful for readers interested in Quanzhou Muslims, Hui Muslims, Islamic History.

The Ding family of Chendai is a branch of Hui Muslims living in Chendai Town, Jinjiang, south of Quanzhou city. They arrived in Quanzhou during the Yuan Dynasty, and between the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, they moved to Chendai, abandoned commerce for farming, and during the mid-Ming Dynasty, they abandoned their Islamic faith through 'clan-building' and 'imperial examination-oriented' processes; today, most follow the traditional religions of the Minnan region. After the Republic of China era, a small number of the Chendai Ding family returned to the Islamic faith and, after the 1980s, established a mosque and an Islamic association.

Today, one can still see traces left by the Chendai Ding family from various historical periods in Quanzhou. Next to the Lingshan Holy Tomb in the east of Quanzhou city, one can see several traditional Islamic tombstones of the Chendai Ding family from the early Ming Dynasty, which still bear Quranic verses from exactly 600 years ago. In Chendai Town, one can see a series of ancestral halls and ancestral homes built by the Ding family since the Ming and Qing dynasties, which are symbols of the clan-building of the Chendai Ding family. In addition, next to the Ding family ancestral hall is the Chendai Mosque, built in 1990, which is a testament to the small number of Chendai Ding family members who have returned to the Islamic faith since the Republic of China era.

Table of Contents

I. Two Hundred Years of Islam — The Ding Family Cemetery

1. Joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations

2. Tomb of the fourth generation Ding Shan and his wife Zhuang Xiniang

3. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Mabao and his wives, Pu and Wang

4. Tombs of the fifth generation Ding Guanbao, sixth generation Ding Kuan, and sixth generation Ding Min

5. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Fubao and his wife Shi Dingniang

6. Tomb of the seventh generation Ding Lun and his wife Zhuang

II. Gradual Change to Conform to Rites — The Ding Family Ancestral Halls

1. The Ding Family Grand Ancestral Hall

2. Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall

3. Fenxi Ding Gong Ancestral Residence

4. Ding Yanzhong's Jinshi Residence

III. The Reappearance of Islam — Chendai Mosque

I. Two Hundred Years of Islam — The Ding Family Cemetery

According to the genealogy, the first ancestor of the Chendai Ding family, Ding Jin (1251-1298), was originally from Suzhou and settled in Quanzhou due to trade. By the time of the third ancestor, Ding Kui (1298-1379), he brought the fourth ancestor, Ding Shan (1343-1420), from Quanzhou city to Chendai, more than twenty li (a unit of distance) south of the city, but the third ancestor traveled between Suzhou and Quanzhou for trade for a long time and did not settle down until the early Ming Dynasty, when the fourth ancestor truly settled in Chendai.

There are many reasons for the Ding family's move to Chendai, the main one being that the Quanzhou port declined at the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, trade was cut off, and the Ding family had no business to conduct, so they chose to abandon commerce for farming, coming to Chendai for tidal flat work and rice cultivation.

The Islamic faith of the Chendai Ding family was maintained for ten generations, spanning more than two hundred years from the 13th to the 16th century. The tenth generation Ding Yanxia, born around 1517, recorded in his 'Zujiao Shuo' (Discourse on Ancestral Religion) the Islamic customs he experienced in his childhood in great detail. However, according to calculations, by the eighth to ninth generations, the Chendai Ding family no longer valued scripture education:

'The shroud is not layered, the coffin is not made of wood, and burial does not exceed three days. The mound is like a horse's mane and shallow, mourning clothes are made of cotton, no ancestral tablets are set up for worship, and no offerings are arranged. For prayer times, at sunset, they gather and face west to pray to Allah. They fast once a year, eating when they see the stars in the morning and evening, and remaining hungry throughout the day. They offer only incense and flowers to the divine, do not set up wine or fruit, and do not burn paper offerings. They recite the pure scriptures, imitating the transmitted foreign sounds, without understanding the meaning, nor seeking to understand it, and use them for both auspicious and inauspicious occasions. Animals must be slaughtered by their own butchers before being eaten, and pork is not consumed. They bathe constantly, for they dare not approach the divine otherwise. They prefer cotton clothing over silk, generally valuing brightness and cleanliness. This is what I, Xia, saw in my youth. ”

The existing Islamic relics of the Chendai Ding family are the several Ming Dynasty Islamic tombstones within the Lingshan Holy Tomb.

1. Joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations

Before the Ding family established their base in Chendai, the first, second, and third generations were all buried at Lingshan, east of Quanzhou city. Lingshan was the main burial area for Muslims in Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties, built in 1162 by the Song Dynasty Arab merchant Shi Nawei. It was called the 'Foreign Merchant Tomb' during the Song and Yuan dynasties.

After the fourth generation Ding Shan established the base in Chendai, he entrusted the ancestral tombs to others for management. Later, the son of the second manager, Xu Fen, named Xu Fu, continuously encroached on the ancestral tomb land, and the Ding family endured it in silence. It was not until 18 years later, in 1505, that the eighth generation Ding Yi passed the imperial examination and became a Jinshi, and after returning to his hometown, he filed a lawsuit and finally reclaimed the ancestral tomb land.

During the Chongzhen period of the Ming Dynasty, the descendants of the Ding family buried the first, second, and third generation ancestors together. In 1993, due to the need for road construction, a large number of Chendai Ding family tombstones were moved from outside the East Gate of Quanzhou, Luyuan, and other places to the Lingshan Holy Tomb; the current joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations was also rebuilt during this period. The tombstones and monuments seen now are not the originals. The Chendai Ding family has legends from the Ming Dynasty that their ancestor was the Yuan Dynasty politician Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din, so the cemetery is inscribed with words stating they are descendants of a saint.



















2. Tomb of the fourth generation Ding Shan and his wife Zhuang Xiniang

Ding Shan (1343-1420), courtesy name Yanren, pseudonym Ren'an, followed his father from Quanzhou to Chendai at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and officially established the base in Chendai at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, founding the Chendai Ding clan. His wife, Zhuang Xiniang, courtesy name Runxiu, was the sixth-generation granddaughter of Zhuang Xia, who was enfeoffed as a founding baron and junior preceptor in the Southern Song Dynasty. The Zhuang family was prominent in the late Southern Song Dynasty but gradually declined after the Yuan Dynasty, and their relatives left Quanzhou one after another; only Zhuang Xiniang's father still lived in the Zhuang mansion south of the city. At that time, the Ding family and the Zhuang family were neighbors, so they became husband and wife, and shortly after the marriage, Ding Shan and his father moved to Chendai. The Ding family's move to Chendai was likely related to Zhuang Xiniang, because near Chendai at that time was Qingyang, where the Zhuang clan lived, a powerful clan known as the 'Qingyang Zhuang family'.

Ding Shan and Zhuang Xiniang were originally buried in Luyuan, east of Quanzhou city; 'Luyuan' means 'Paradise', which is the 'Garden' (Jannah) in the Quran. The tomb is a traditional Islamic chlorite tomb, with two sumeru-pedestal style five-layer tombstones placed on a sumeru-pedestal altar platform. The first layer of the tombstone has six gnomon feet, carved with ruyi (auspicious) patterns; The second layer is carved with continuous scrolling patterns; The third layer is carved with overlapping lotus patterns; The fourth layer is carved with Quranic verses; The fifth layer is a curved arch-shaped tombstone top. Behind the tombstone is a monument erected in 1910.

The verses on the tombstone are from the Quran, Chapter 2, Verse 255.









3. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Mabao and his wives, Pu and Wang

Ding Mabao (1366-1431), courtesy name Shilong, pseudonym Yi'an, was the eldest son of the fourth generation Ding Shan who established the base in Chendai, and the founding ancestor of the main branch of the Chendai Ding family; he was originally buried with his two wives in the Chengui Baoxue (a geomantically auspicious site) on Daping Mountain, east of Quanzhou city.



4. Tombs of the fifth generation Ding Guanbao, sixth generation Ding Kuan, and sixth generation Ding Min

Ding Guanbao (1369-1436), courtesy name Shifu, pseudonym Chengzhai, was the second son of Ding Shan and the founding ancestor of the second main branch of the Chendai Ding family. He was originally buried at the foot of Shuiuniulin, east of Quanzhou city.

Ding Kuan (1395-1446), courtesy name Tingyu, pseudonym Longyin, was the second son of Ding Guanbao and was originally buried to the left of Ding Shan's tomb in Luyuan Mountain.

Ding Min (1407-1456), courtesy name Tingxue, pseudonym Yizhai, was the fourth son of Ding Guanbao and was originally buried at the foot of Shuiuniulin, east of Quanzhou city. Ding Min was the earliest local worthy among the Chendai Ding family to promote literary education.







5. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Fubao and his wife Shi Dingniang

Ding Fubao (1375-1432), courtesy name Shizhang, pseudonym Yingjie, was the third son of Ding Shan and the founding ancestor of the third main branch of the Chendai Ding family, buried at Lingshan, east of Quanzhou city. The tomb consists of two sumeru-pedestal stone tombs placed on a traditional Islamic sumeru-pedestal altar platform, with swastikas and double lions playing with a pearl carved on the waist of the platform.











6. Tomb of the seventh generation Ding Lun and his wife Zhuang

Ding Lun (1442-1485), courtesy name Zhaorui, was the third son of the sixth generation Ding Xin.







For information on the Ming Dynasty Islamic tombstones of the Chendai Ding family, see 'Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings'.



II. Gradual Change to Conform to Rites — The Ding Family Ancestral Halls

By the mid-16th century, the religious customs of the Chendai Ding family had undergone significant changes; Ding Yanxia recorded in 'Zujiao Shuo':

'Later, shrouds were layered, coffins were made of wood, and burials were delayed. Mourning clothes were half cotton, ancestral tablets were set up, mounds were large, offerings were arranged, animals were fat, and prayers to Allah were rare. Fasting disappeared, and animals did not have to be slaughtered by their own butchers. Clothing was made of silk, bathing was not required for approaching the divine, wine and fruit were set out, and cotton and silk were burned for other gods, though not for ancestors. The offering of incense and flowers remained as before. ”

Finally, by the late 16th century, the Chendai Ding family had completely abandoned Islam; 'Zujiao Shuo' records:

'Now, when worshipping ancestors, some burn cotton and silk, animals do not have to be slaughtered by their own butchers, mourning clothes are all made of hemp without cotton, burials are delayed for more than ten years, Taoist priests and Buddhist monks are used for auspicious and inauspicious occasions, and pork is eaten. ”

According to folklore, the Chendai Ding family began eating pork in 1592 when the eleventh generation Ding Qijun, who became a Jinshi, was gifted food by the Wanli Emperor. However, the statement by the twelfth generation Ding Qing in 'Jiyi Jiyan' (Records of Sacrificial Rites) in 1698 is more credible:

'Fenxi Gong (Ding Yi) was the first to enter the official ranks, and he worshipped his ancestors according to the rites of a high official, not daring to violate the Islamic faith. But the three generations of Huai Gong (Ding Zishen), Wuting Gong (Ding Rijn), and Zhechu Gong (Ding Qijun) all passed the imperial examinations, and the family's reputation grew, while the Islamic faith almost ceased. ”

The Chendai Ding family began their official careers starting with the eighth generation Ding Yi, and by the tenth generation, 20 people had become Jinshi; these people used Confucian ethics and principles as their standard everywhere, which had an important impact on the Chendai Ding family and accelerated the dissolution of the Islamic faith. This is what Ding Yanxia referred to as 'gradually conforming to the rites', living according to Confucian behavioral standards. Wang Ke's book 'The Vanishing "Nationals"' provides an in-depth discussion of the 'clan-building' and 'imperial examination-oriented' processes of the Chendai Ding family; interested friends can take a look.



1. The Ding Family Grand Ancestral Hall

The most important sign of the Chendai Ding family's departure from Islam was the reconstruction of the Ding family ancestral hall in 1561. The early Ding family ancestral hall is presumed to have been built in the early 15th century, was destroyed by war in 1561, was rebuilt shortly after under the leadership of Ding Yi and Ding Zishen, and was rebuilt and expanded again by Ding Rijn in 1599 to its current scale.

The ancestral hall enshrines the spirit tablets of the first to fifth generation ancestors and ancestors who held titles and merits, but initially, there were no spirit tablets; instead, there were small wooden screens handwritten by the eighth generation Ding Yi (1472-1521) listing the first to fourth generation ancestors.

In 1561, the Ding family ancestral hall was destroyed due to 'Japanese pirate disturbances', and in 1562, Ding Yanxia initiated the formulation of the 'Sacrificial Covenant', which officially determined the way the Chendai Ding family worshipped their ancestors. The 'Sacrificial Covenant' mentions 'kneeling in order to offer incense, bowing four times to the spirits, and kneeling to offer wine', which was already completely in line with traditional Chinese customs.











In addition to the Grand Ancestral Hall, the Chendai Ding family has many small ancestral halls and ancestral homes for worshipping ancestors. The 6 small ancestral halls are the 'Yi'an Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the fifth generation Ding Mabao, the 'Zhongzhai Ding Family Ancestral Hall' for the sixth generation Ding Xin, the 'Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the sixth generation Ding Min, the 'Dunpu Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the seventh generation Ding Chang, the 'Gusu Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the eighth generation Ding Gui, and the 'Daozhen Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the twelfth generation Ding Shibo. The establishment of small ancestral halls is usually for the prosperity of the descendants of a specific branch, built to bring honor to the ancestors.

Below the small ancestral halls are ancestral homes, which enshrine the ancestors of the branch and their descendants, formed as descendants multiplied and families branched out; there are about 200 of them.

2.

Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall

The sixth generation Ding Min (1407-1456), courtesy name Tingxue, pseudonym Yizhai, was the earliest local worthy among the Chendai Ding family to promote literary education.









3. Fenxi Ding Gong Ancestral Residence

The eighth generation Ding Yi (1472-1521), courtesy name Wenfan, pseudonym Fenxi, passed the Jinshi examination in 1505 and was the first person from the Chendai Ding family to enter an official career, serving as an inspector in the Sichuan Surveillance Commission. At the same time, Ding Yi was also a famous poet of the mid-Ming Dynasty, with his 'Gui Nang Yi Gao' (Posthumous Manuscripts of the Returning Bag) circulating.













4. Ding Yanzhong's Jinshi Residence

The tenth generation Ding Yanzhong passed the military Jinshi examinations in 1582 and 1583 and served as the commander-in-chief of Guangxi Prefecture.





III. The Reappearance of Islam — Chendai Mosque

In the early 1920s, the famous Hui Muslim Tang Kesan, while serving as the Superintendent of the Xiamen Customs, paid great attention to the religious affairs in Quanzhou, and on the eve of the War of Resistance, he recommended his fellow townsman Zhang Guangyu to preside over religious work in the Quanzhou area. After Zhang Guangyu arrived in Quanzhou, he earnestly carried out religious affairs, and the religious life in Chendai began to reappear.

In 1939, the 'China Islamic National Salvation Association Chendai Branch' was established in Chendai, and some Chendai Ding family members often went to the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou for Jumu'ah (Friday congregational prayer); later, they converted the 'Wenchang Mosque' in Sijing Village into a mosque and hired an Ahong (Imam) from Quanzhou to preside over religious affairs.

Between 1937 and 1944, the most famous modern Islamic school during the Republic of China, the Chengda Normal School, moved south to Guilin, and the founders Tang Kesan and Ma Songting successively accepted 17 young people from the Chendai Ding family to study there.

In the late 1950s, all Islamic activities in Chendai were forced to stop, and Ding Jinshun, a graduate of Chengda Normal School, was criticized and struggled against for mentioning in class that he was a Hui Muslim.

In 1983, Ding Jinshun and Ding Jinhe, graduates of Chengda Normal School, attended the founding meeting of the Fujian Islamic Association. After this, Chengda Normal School graduates Ding Jinshun, Ding Jinhe, Ding Jinke, and Ding Jinhong, along with more than twenty other people enthusiastic about the faith, established the 'Chendai Islamic Association Group' and began to restore religious life. They borrowed the second-floor conference room of the Chendai Hui Muslim Affairs Committee and the back hall of the Ding family ancestral hall for Jumu'ah prayers, with Ding Jinshun serving as the Imam. During Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, they invited their former Chengda Normal School classmates who were now serving as Ahongs in Guilin, as well as Ahongs from Jiaxing, Zhejiang, to preside over the congregational prayers.

After the Chendai Islamic Association Group was established, they began preparing to build a mosque. They issued a 'Letter to Fellow Muslims Nationwide' to the national Islamic association, but only a few mosques in Ankang, Shaanxi, and Yunnan sent a few hundred yuan in funds. After this, former Chengda Normal School classmates in Hong Kong forwarded the 'Letter to Ding Family Relatives and Fellow Countrymen' to the Chendai Ding family in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and overseas, and received 70,000 yuan in donations from the 'Five Surnames Islamic Association (originating from the Jin, Ding, Ma, Bai, and Guo Hui Muslim families of Quanzhou) of Filipinos' in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and the Philippines.

In 1991, the Chendai Mosque was completed, opened officially in 1993, and the Jinjiang Islamic Association was immediately established. The Chendai Ding family hired Ahong Ma Zhiwei from Inner Mongolia as the first head of the mosque, and Ding Jinke and Ding Jinshun served as the first director of the mosque management committee and the director of the Islamic association, respectively.

After the 1990s, the Chendai Ding family selected nearly 60 young people to study Islam at home and abroad, some of whom went to Arabic language schools in mosques in Inner Mongolia.











Tomb of the twenty-second generation Ding Jinke

Ding Jinke (1923-1997), religious name Yunus, studied at the Guangxi Chengda Normal School and the Hong Kong Dade College. He participated in the revolution during the War of Liberation and later worked in the Financial Committee of the State Council and in colleges and universities in Beijing and Xinjiang. After retiring and returning to his hometown in 1983, he participated in the construction of the Chendai Mosque and the formation of the Jinjiang Islamic Association, serving as the executive deputy director of the Jinjiang Islamic Association, and later cultivated dozens of Chendai Ding family youths to go to Islamic colleges at home and abroad for further studies.





For research on the Chendai Ding family, see the book 'Research on the History of the Chendai Hui Muslims'.



Finally, here are some Chendai Ding family residences.



















The unique Minnan wall-building method of 'using bricks and stones'. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This travel note introduces Quanzhou Muslim Heritage: The Ding Hui Muslims of Chendai. The Ding family of Chendai is a branch of Hui Muslims living in Chendai Town, Jinjiang, south of Quanzhou city. It is useful for readers interested in Quanzhou Muslims, Hui Muslims, Islamic History.

The Ding family of Chendai is a branch of Hui Muslims living in Chendai Town, Jinjiang, south of Quanzhou city. They arrived in Quanzhou during the Yuan Dynasty, and between the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, they moved to Chendai, abandoned commerce for farming, and during the mid-Ming Dynasty, they abandoned their Islamic faith through 'clan-building' and 'imperial examination-oriented' processes; today, most follow the traditional religions of the Minnan region. After the Republic of China era, a small number of the Chendai Ding family returned to the Islamic faith and, after the 1980s, established a mosque and an Islamic association.

Today, one can still see traces left by the Chendai Ding family from various historical periods in Quanzhou. Next to the Lingshan Holy Tomb in the east of Quanzhou city, one can see several traditional Islamic tombstones of the Chendai Ding family from the early Ming Dynasty, which still bear Quranic verses from exactly 600 years ago. In Chendai Town, one can see a series of ancestral halls and ancestral homes built by the Ding family since the Ming and Qing dynasties, which are symbols of the clan-building of the Chendai Ding family. In addition, next to the Ding family ancestral hall is the Chendai Mosque, built in 1990, which is a testament to the small number of Chendai Ding family members who have returned to the Islamic faith since the Republic of China era.

Table of Contents

I. Two Hundred Years of Islam — The Ding Family Cemetery

1. Joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations

2. Tomb of the fourth generation Ding Shan and his wife Zhuang Xiniang

3. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Mabao and his wives, Pu and Wang

4. Tombs of the fifth generation Ding Guanbao, sixth generation Ding Kuan, and sixth generation Ding Min

5. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Fubao and his wife Shi Dingniang

6. Tomb of the seventh generation Ding Lun and his wife Zhuang

II. Gradual Change to Conform to Rites — The Ding Family Ancestral Halls

1. The Ding Family Grand Ancestral Hall

2. Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall

3. Fenxi Ding Gong Ancestral Residence

4. Ding Yanzhong's Jinshi Residence

III. The Reappearance of Islam — Chendai Mosque

I. Two Hundred Years of Islam — The Ding Family Cemetery

According to the genealogy, the first ancestor of the Chendai Ding family, Ding Jin (1251-1298), was originally from Suzhou and settled in Quanzhou due to trade. By the time of the third ancestor, Ding Kui (1298-1379), he brought the fourth ancestor, Ding Shan (1343-1420), from Quanzhou city to Chendai, more than twenty li (a unit of distance) south of the city, but the third ancestor traveled between Suzhou and Quanzhou for trade for a long time and did not settle down until the early Ming Dynasty, when the fourth ancestor truly settled in Chendai.

There are many reasons for the Ding family's move to Chendai, the main one being that the Quanzhou port declined at the end of the Yuan and the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, trade was cut off, and the Ding family had no business to conduct, so they chose to abandon commerce for farming, coming to Chendai for tidal flat work and rice cultivation.

The Islamic faith of the Chendai Ding family was maintained for ten generations, spanning more than two hundred years from the 13th to the 16th century. The tenth generation Ding Yanxia, born around 1517, recorded in his 'Zujiao Shuo' (Discourse on Ancestral Religion) the Islamic customs he experienced in his childhood in great detail. However, according to calculations, by the eighth to ninth generations, the Chendai Ding family no longer valued scripture education:

'The shroud is not layered, the coffin is not made of wood, and burial does not exceed three days. The mound is like a horse's mane and shallow, mourning clothes are made of cotton, no ancestral tablets are set up for worship, and no offerings are arranged. For prayer times, at sunset, they gather and face west to pray to Allah. They fast once a year, eating when they see the stars in the morning and evening, and remaining hungry throughout the day. They offer only incense and flowers to the divine, do not set up wine or fruit, and do not burn paper offerings. They recite the pure scriptures, imitating the transmitted foreign sounds, without understanding the meaning, nor seeking to understand it, and use them for both auspicious and inauspicious occasions. Animals must be slaughtered by their own butchers before being eaten, and pork is not consumed. They bathe constantly, for they dare not approach the divine otherwise. They prefer cotton clothing over silk, generally valuing brightness and cleanliness. This is what I, Xia, saw in my youth. ”

The existing Islamic relics of the Chendai Ding family are the several Ming Dynasty Islamic tombstones within the Lingshan Holy Tomb.

1. Joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations

Before the Ding family established their base in Chendai, the first, second, and third generations were all buried at Lingshan, east of Quanzhou city. Lingshan was the main burial area for Muslims in Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties, built in 1162 by the Song Dynasty Arab merchant Shi Nawei. It was called the 'Foreign Merchant Tomb' during the Song and Yuan dynasties.

After the fourth generation Ding Shan established the base in Chendai, he entrusted the ancestral tombs to others for management. Later, the son of the second manager, Xu Fen, named Xu Fu, continuously encroached on the ancestral tomb land, and the Ding family endured it in silence. It was not until 18 years later, in 1505, that the eighth generation Ding Yi passed the imperial examination and became a Jinshi, and after returning to his hometown, he filed a lawsuit and finally reclaimed the ancestral tomb land.

During the Chongzhen period of the Ming Dynasty, the descendants of the Ding family buried the first, second, and third generation ancestors together. In 1993, due to the need for road construction, a large number of Chendai Ding family tombstones were moved from outside the East Gate of Quanzhou, Luyuan, and other places to the Lingshan Holy Tomb; the current joint tomb of the first, second, and third generations was also rebuilt during this period. The tombstones and monuments seen now are not the originals. The Chendai Ding family has legends from the Ming Dynasty that their ancestor was the Yuan Dynasty politician Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din, so the cemetery is inscribed with words stating they are descendants of a saint.



















2. Tomb of the fourth generation Ding Shan and his wife Zhuang Xiniang

Ding Shan (1343-1420), courtesy name Yanren, pseudonym Ren'an, followed his father from Quanzhou to Chendai at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and officially established the base in Chendai at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, founding the Chendai Ding clan. His wife, Zhuang Xiniang, courtesy name Runxiu, was the sixth-generation granddaughter of Zhuang Xia, who was enfeoffed as a founding baron and junior preceptor in the Southern Song Dynasty. The Zhuang family was prominent in the late Southern Song Dynasty but gradually declined after the Yuan Dynasty, and their relatives left Quanzhou one after another; only Zhuang Xiniang's father still lived in the Zhuang mansion south of the city. At that time, the Ding family and the Zhuang family were neighbors, so they became husband and wife, and shortly after the marriage, Ding Shan and his father moved to Chendai. The Ding family's move to Chendai was likely related to Zhuang Xiniang, because near Chendai at that time was Qingyang, where the Zhuang clan lived, a powerful clan known as the 'Qingyang Zhuang family'.

Ding Shan and Zhuang Xiniang were originally buried in Luyuan, east of Quanzhou city; 'Luyuan' means 'Paradise', which is the 'Garden' (Jannah) in the Quran. The tomb is a traditional Islamic chlorite tomb, with two sumeru-pedestal style five-layer tombstones placed on a sumeru-pedestal altar platform. The first layer of the tombstone has six gnomon feet, carved with ruyi (auspicious) patterns; The second layer is carved with continuous scrolling patterns; The third layer is carved with overlapping lotus patterns; The fourth layer is carved with Quranic verses; The fifth layer is a curved arch-shaped tombstone top. Behind the tombstone is a monument erected in 1910.

The verses on the tombstone are from the Quran, Chapter 2, Verse 255.









3. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Mabao and his wives, Pu and Wang

Ding Mabao (1366-1431), courtesy name Shilong, pseudonym Yi'an, was the eldest son of the fourth generation Ding Shan who established the base in Chendai, and the founding ancestor of the main branch of the Chendai Ding family; he was originally buried with his two wives in the Chengui Baoxue (a geomantically auspicious site) on Daping Mountain, east of Quanzhou city.



4. Tombs of the fifth generation Ding Guanbao, sixth generation Ding Kuan, and sixth generation Ding Min

Ding Guanbao (1369-1436), courtesy name Shifu, pseudonym Chengzhai, was the second son of Ding Shan and the founding ancestor of the second main branch of the Chendai Ding family. He was originally buried at the foot of Shuiuniulin, east of Quanzhou city.

Ding Kuan (1395-1446), courtesy name Tingyu, pseudonym Longyin, was the second son of Ding Guanbao and was originally buried to the left of Ding Shan's tomb in Luyuan Mountain.

Ding Min (1407-1456), courtesy name Tingxue, pseudonym Yizhai, was the fourth son of Ding Guanbao and was originally buried at the foot of Shuiuniulin, east of Quanzhou city. Ding Min was the earliest local worthy among the Chendai Ding family to promote literary education.







5. Tomb of the fifth generation Ding Fubao and his wife Shi Dingniang

Ding Fubao (1375-1432), courtesy name Shizhang, pseudonym Yingjie, was the third son of Ding Shan and the founding ancestor of the third main branch of the Chendai Ding family, buried at Lingshan, east of Quanzhou city. The tomb consists of two sumeru-pedestal stone tombs placed on a traditional Islamic sumeru-pedestal altar platform, with swastikas and double lions playing with a pearl carved on the waist of the platform.











6. Tomb of the seventh generation Ding Lun and his wife Zhuang

Ding Lun (1442-1485), courtesy name Zhaorui, was the third son of the sixth generation Ding Xin.







For information on the Ming Dynasty Islamic tombstones of the Chendai Ding family, see 'Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings'.



II. Gradual Change to Conform to Rites — The Ding Family Ancestral Halls

By the mid-16th century, the religious customs of the Chendai Ding family had undergone significant changes; Ding Yanxia recorded in 'Zujiao Shuo':

'Later, shrouds were layered, coffins were made of wood, and burials were delayed. Mourning clothes were half cotton, ancestral tablets were set up, mounds were large, offerings were arranged, animals were fat, and prayers to Allah were rare. Fasting disappeared, and animals did not have to be slaughtered by their own butchers. Clothing was made of silk, bathing was not required for approaching the divine, wine and fruit were set out, and cotton and silk were burned for other gods, though not for ancestors. The offering of incense and flowers remained as before. ”

Finally, by the late 16th century, the Chendai Ding family had completely abandoned Islam; 'Zujiao Shuo' records:

'Now, when worshipping ancestors, some burn cotton and silk, animals do not have to be slaughtered by their own butchers, mourning clothes are all made of hemp without cotton, burials are delayed for more than ten years, Taoist priests and Buddhist monks are used for auspicious and inauspicious occasions, and pork is eaten. ”

According to folklore, the Chendai Ding family began eating pork in 1592 when the eleventh generation Ding Qijun, who became a Jinshi, was gifted food by the Wanli Emperor. However, the statement by the twelfth generation Ding Qing in 'Jiyi Jiyan' (Records of Sacrificial Rites) in 1698 is more credible:

'Fenxi Gong (Ding Yi) was the first to enter the official ranks, and he worshipped his ancestors according to the rites of a high official, not daring to violate the Islamic faith. But the three generations of Huai Gong (Ding Zishen), Wuting Gong (Ding Rijn), and Zhechu Gong (Ding Qijun) all passed the imperial examinations, and the family's reputation grew, while the Islamic faith almost ceased. ”

The Chendai Ding family began their official careers starting with the eighth generation Ding Yi, and by the tenth generation, 20 people had become Jinshi; these people used Confucian ethics and principles as their standard everywhere, which had an important impact on the Chendai Ding family and accelerated the dissolution of the Islamic faith. This is what Ding Yanxia referred to as 'gradually conforming to the rites', living according to Confucian behavioral standards. Wang Ke's book 'The Vanishing "Nationals"' provides an in-depth discussion of the 'clan-building' and 'imperial examination-oriented' processes of the Chendai Ding family; interested friends can take a look.



1. The Ding Family Grand Ancestral Hall

The most important sign of the Chendai Ding family's departure from Islam was the reconstruction of the Ding family ancestral hall in 1561. The early Ding family ancestral hall is presumed to have been built in the early 15th century, was destroyed by war in 1561, was rebuilt shortly after under the leadership of Ding Yi and Ding Zishen, and was rebuilt and expanded again by Ding Rijn in 1599 to its current scale.

The ancestral hall enshrines the spirit tablets of the first to fifth generation ancestors and ancestors who held titles and merits, but initially, there were no spirit tablets; instead, there were small wooden screens handwritten by the eighth generation Ding Yi (1472-1521) listing the first to fourth generation ancestors.

In 1561, the Ding family ancestral hall was destroyed due to 'Japanese pirate disturbances', and in 1562, Ding Yanxia initiated the formulation of the 'Sacrificial Covenant', which officially determined the way the Chendai Ding family worshipped their ancestors. The 'Sacrificial Covenant' mentions 'kneeling in order to offer incense, bowing four times to the spirits, and kneeling to offer wine', which was already completely in line with traditional Chinese customs.











In addition to the Grand Ancestral Hall, the Chendai Ding family has many small ancestral halls and ancestral homes for worshipping ancestors. The 6 small ancestral halls are the 'Yi'an Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the fifth generation Ding Mabao, the 'Zhongzhai Ding Family Ancestral Hall' for the sixth generation Ding Xin, the 'Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the sixth generation Ding Min, the 'Dunpu Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the seventh generation Ding Chang, the 'Gusu Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the eighth generation Ding Gui, and the 'Daozhen Ding Gong Ancestral Hall' for the twelfth generation Ding Shibo. The establishment of small ancestral halls is usually for the prosperity of the descendants of a specific branch, built to bring honor to the ancestors.

Below the small ancestral halls are ancestral homes, which enshrine the ancestors of the branch and their descendants, formed as descendants multiplied and families branched out; there are about 200 of them.

2.

Yizhai Ding Gong Ancestral Hall

The sixth generation Ding Min (1407-1456), courtesy name Tingxue, pseudonym Yizhai, was the earliest local worthy among the Chendai Ding family to promote literary education.









3. Fenxi Ding Gong Ancestral Residence

The eighth generation Ding Yi (1472-1521), courtesy name Wenfan, pseudonym Fenxi, passed the Jinshi examination in 1505 and was the first person from the Chendai Ding family to enter an official career, serving as an inspector in the Sichuan Surveillance Commission. At the same time, Ding Yi was also a famous poet of the mid-Ming Dynasty, with his 'Gui Nang Yi Gao' (Posthumous Manuscripts of the Returning Bag) circulating.













4. Ding Yanzhong's Jinshi Residence

The tenth generation Ding Yanzhong passed the military Jinshi examinations in 1582 and 1583 and served as the commander-in-chief of Guangxi Prefecture.





III. The Reappearance of Islam — Chendai Mosque

In the early 1920s, the famous Hui Muslim Tang Kesan, while serving as the Superintendent of the Xiamen Customs, paid great attention to the religious affairs in Quanzhou, and on the eve of the War of Resistance, he recommended his fellow townsman Zhang Guangyu to preside over religious work in the Quanzhou area. After Zhang Guangyu arrived in Quanzhou, he earnestly carried out religious affairs, and the religious life in Chendai began to reappear.

In 1939, the 'China Islamic National Salvation Association Chendai Branch' was established in Chendai, and some Chendai Ding family members often went to the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou for Jumu'ah (Friday congregational prayer); later, they converted the 'Wenchang Mosque' in Sijing Village into a mosque and hired an Ahong (Imam) from Quanzhou to preside over religious affairs.

Between 1937 and 1944, the most famous modern Islamic school during the Republic of China, the Chengda Normal School, moved south to Guilin, and the founders Tang Kesan and Ma Songting successively accepted 17 young people from the Chendai Ding family to study there.

In the late 1950s, all Islamic activities in Chendai were forced to stop, and Ding Jinshun, a graduate of Chengda Normal School, was criticized and struggled against for mentioning in class that he was a Hui Muslim.

In 1983, Ding Jinshun and Ding Jinhe, graduates of Chengda Normal School, attended the founding meeting of the Fujian Islamic Association. After this, Chengda Normal School graduates Ding Jinshun, Ding Jinhe, Ding Jinke, and Ding Jinhong, along with more than twenty other people enthusiastic about the faith, established the 'Chendai Islamic Association Group' and began to restore religious life. They borrowed the second-floor conference room of the Chendai Hui Muslim Affairs Committee and the back hall of the Ding family ancestral hall for Jumu'ah prayers, with Ding Jinshun serving as the Imam. During Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, they invited their former Chengda Normal School classmates who were now serving as Ahongs in Guilin, as well as Ahongs from Jiaxing, Zhejiang, to preside over the congregational prayers.

After the Chendai Islamic Association Group was established, they began preparing to build a mosque. They issued a 'Letter to Fellow Muslims Nationwide' to the national Islamic association, but only a few mosques in Ankang, Shaanxi, and Yunnan sent a few hundred yuan in funds. After this, former Chengda Normal School classmates in Hong Kong forwarded the 'Letter to Ding Family Relatives and Fellow Countrymen' to the Chendai Ding family in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and overseas, and received 70,000 yuan in donations from the 'Five Surnames Islamic Association (originating from the Jin, Ding, Ma, Bai, and Guo Hui Muslim families of Quanzhou) of Filipinos' in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and the Philippines.

In 1991, the Chendai Mosque was completed, opened officially in 1993, and the Jinjiang Islamic Association was immediately established. The Chendai Ding family hired Ahong Ma Zhiwei from Inner Mongolia as the first head of the mosque, and Ding Jinke and Ding Jinshun served as the first director of the mosque management committee and the director of the Islamic association, respectively.

After the 1990s, the Chendai Ding family selected nearly 60 young people to study Islam at home and abroad, some of whom went to Arabic language schools in mosques in Inner Mongolia.











Tomb of the twenty-second generation Ding Jinke

Ding Jinke (1923-1997), religious name Yunus, studied at the Guangxi Chengda Normal School and the Hong Kong Dade College. He participated in the revolution during the War of Liberation and later worked in the Financial Committee of the State Council and in colleges and universities in Beijing and Xinjiang. After retiring and returning to his hometown in 1983, he participated in the construction of the Chendai Mosque and the formation of the Jinjiang Islamic Association, serving as the executive deputy director of the Jinjiang Islamic Association, and later cultivated dozens of Chendai Ding family youths to go to Islamic colleges at home and abroad for further studies.





For research on the Chendai Ding family, see the book 'Research on the History of the Chendai Hui Muslims'.



Finally, here are some Chendai Ding family residences.



















The unique Minnan wall-building method of 'using bricks and stones'. view all