Reposted from the web

Summary: Muslim History Guide China: Linxia Gannan Xidaotang, Gongbei Mosques and Silk Road Faith is presented here as a clear English account for Muslim readers, starting with this scene: Before Eid al-Adha (Qurban Jie), I took my wife and father-in-law on a road trip starting from Xunhua. We passed through Linxia, Xiahe, and Hezuo, ending in Lintan County in Gannan. The scenery along the way was beautiful, even. It keeps the original names, food details, mosque details, photographs, and cultural context while focusing on Linxia Travel, Xidaotang, Muslim History.

Before Eid al-Adha (Qurban Jie), I took my wife and father-in-law on a road trip starting from Xunhua. We passed through Linxia, Xiahe, and Hezuo, ending in Lintan County in Gannan. The scenery along the way was beautiful, even better than the paid tourist spots we visited.

Gannan is part of the greater Tibetan region with an average altitude of 3,000 meters, and some places go over 3,500 meters. Some people get altitude sickness, so prepare before you leave. I suggest keeping a simple oxygen canister in the car; they cost a few dozen yuan and are good to have just in case.

Also, watch out for the sun. The UV rays and sunlight at high altitudes are very strong and can make it hard to keep your eyes open. There is a big temperature difference between morning and night, so wear long sleeves and don't forget your sunglasses and sunscreen.

Itinerary: Xunhua - Linxia - Xiahe - Sangke Grassland - Hezuo - Meiren Grassland - Yeliguan - Lintan - Xunhua

(Three days total)

The three of us drove one car from Xunhua and reached Linxia in about two hours. We stayed in Linxia for one day. On the second day at noon, we arrived in Xiahe County for lunch and Jumuah prayer. We passed through Sangke Grassland, went through Hezuo City in the afternoon, passed Meiren Grassland, and arrived at Yeliguan in the evening. We stayed another night in Yeliguan. On the third morning, we visited Yeliguan National Forest Park and reached Lintan County by noon. We visited Xidaotang and in the afternoon went to the Galutian Big House, ten kilometers from Lintan County, as the end of our trip. That night, we drove over four hours back to Xunhua. The whole trip took one tank of gas.

Most tourists start from Lanzhou, which is only a two-hour drive from Linxia, so their route is similar to ours. You could skip Lintan County and head south to the Zhagana scenic area. I heard the scenery there is nice, but friends in Linxia said there are few Hui Muslims there, so it is just for taking photos, and we decided not to go.

Day 1: Linxia



I visited Linxia in 2016 and toured the famous Eight Neighborhoods and Thirteen Alleys. The Eight Neighborhoods are: 1. Dasi Fang, 2. Qisi Fang, 3. Xisi Fang, 4. Beisi Fang, 5. Tiejia Si Fang, 6. Qianheyan Si Fang, 7. Laowang Si Fang, 8. Xinwang Si Fang.

The Thirteen Alleys are: 1. Daga Alley, 2. Xiaonan Alley, 3. Bakou Alley, 4. Bei Alley, 5. Shagale Alley, 6. Zhuanyuan Alley, 7. Danan Alley, 8. Renyi Alley, 9. Xi Alley, 10. Yongzheng Alley, 11. Tiejia Si Alley, 12. Wangsi Alley, 13. Shiqiao Alley.

I mainly came to see the mosques and gongbei (shrines). Nearby are Tiejia Mosque, Laohua Mosque, Xinhua Mosque, Laowang Mosque, Beisi Mosque, Xisi Mosque, Daqi Mosque, Chengjiao Mosque, Nanguan Grand Mosque, Qianheyan Mosque, Guo Gongbei, and Da Gongbei.



Guo Gongbei

There are two gongbei in Hongyuan Square in Linxia, both belonging to the Qadiriyya menhuan (Sufi order). One is Guo Gongbei and the other is Da Gongbei. They are right next to each other. The master of Guo Gongbei was named Chen Yiming (1646—1718). People called him Chen Baoguo because he once protected the Qing Emperor Kangxi and was granted the surname Chen. Legend says his original surname was Hu. Although he was Qadiriyya, he was not under the control of Da Gongbei. After he passed away, the Qing court ordered the construction of the gongbei. The master of the gongbei did not preach. The followers at Guo Gongbei used to wear slanted-collar robes for a long time, but later the Da Gongbei council decided they should change their style of dress.



Da Gongbei is the shrine of Qi Jingyi, the founder of the Qadiriyya order. It is called Da Gongbei because it was built larger than the shrines of other menhuan. I have visited several important Qadiriyya gongbei. Compared to the styles of other menhuan, the architecture of Qadiriyya gongbei has more classical Chinese features and looks very similar to Taoist temples.













Linxia: Accommodation



Baishun Zhongtian Banquet Hotel

We chose to stay at the Baishun Zhongtian Banquet Hotel. Accommodation in Linxia is quite cheap; you can find a great hotel for two or three hundred yuan. This hotel is halal, has a comfortable environment, is near the river, and the breakfast is delicious.





Before arriving in Linxia, I posted on WeChat asking where to eat. I got dozens of replies, and no one recommended the same place twice. People suggested Dongxiang hand-grabbed lamb (shouzhuar), steamed buns (baozi), river-side noodle slices (heyan mianpian), Muqing Manor, sausage-stuffed intestines (fazi mianchang), Yinxing Restaurant, Maogou boiled chicken, and more. I didn't know what to do, so Brother Ma from Linxia decided for me and took me to the very famous farmhouse restaurants in Zheqiaowan.



Zheqiaowan is a place name. The local farmhouse-style restaurants are very popular, and they say you can't go wrong with any of them. It turns out the people in Linxia really know how to cook. Many of the noodle masters in the restaurants in neighboring Lanzhou are from Linxia, so noodle dishes are one of the specialties here.



The farmhouse restaurants are quite large and serve big portions. I suggest that if you are eating with a group, you can order one dish less than the number of people. For three people, two dishes are enough. Ordering too much is wasteful. We were four people and ordered five dishes, but we couldn't finish them and ended up packing the leftovers to go.



Three-treasure tea (sanpaotai)



Pan-fried potatoes with lamb chops (kang yangyu yangpai)



Hand-torn flatbread (shousi bing)



Chive buns (jiucai baozi)



Stir-stir-fried meat with vermicelli (fentiao chaorou)

Day 2: Xiahe County



The drive from Linxia to Xiahe takes over two hours. Xiahe is famous for the Tibetan Buddhist Labrang Monastery, but we only visited the Labrang Mosque. The two are not far apart, and since it was Jumu'ah, we were able to attend the congregational prayer there.



The Labrang Mosque is also called the Xiahe Mosque. It is the only mosque in the area, but it is quite large and its architectural style incorporates elements of Tibetan design.



The Labrang Mosque was founded in 1854. Before building it, they had to get permission from the Labrang Monastery. At first, the mosque was just a temporary place for namaz, but as the number of local Hui Muslims grew, the mosque needed to expand. However, the Tibetans would not allow a large-scale construction, so they could only expand it slightly.

By 1936 (the 25th year of the Republic of China), a large number of refugees from Hezhou had flooded into Labrang following the Ma Zhongying incident of 1928. The mosque was clearly too small, so school board member Ma Letian and others held several talks with Huang Zhengqing, the commander of the Labrang Tibetan security forces (and brother of the 5th Jamyang), and finally secured a promise that they could fully expand the mosque without interference.

The newly built mosque covered a total area of 639 square meters. It featured a main prayer hall with a brick-and-wood structure consisting of five main rooms and three side rooms, a three-story pavilion-style minaret, 24 rooms for the east, north, and south wings, and 12 rooms for storage and bathing facilities. That was before the Reform and Opening-up period, though; the current building dates back to 1981.









Once you reach Xiahe, you have entered the greater Tibetan region, so you can see the Tibetan style in the local residential architecture.





Although Xiahe County is a Tibetan area, there are halal restaurants everywhere. We chose a large restaurant called Jiusheng. This place does not sell alcohol and also offers lodging, so friends who need a place to stay can consider booking a room here. The dining area at Jiusheng is very spacious, and the dishes have a strong local character. I ordered a dish called Kekexili, which is made with wheat kernels. It was delicious, but the portion was huge. I didn't finish it, so I packed it up and ate the rest as a snack on the road.





Stir-fried beef with tiger skin peppers (hupi lazi shao niurou)



Rustic farmhouse-style dishes (fengwei nongjia cai)



Kekexili (a dish made with wheat kernels)

Leaving Xiahe County and heading south, our grassland road trip began. Along both sides of the road lies the endless Sangke Grassland. The Gannan region has many grasslands, and Sangke is the first large one we passed through.











Prayer flag tunnel (jingfan suidao)



Along the way, we saw some nice scenery by the road and stopped to take photos. Just as we were about to leave, a child and an elderly person, both dressed in Tibetan clothing, blocked us to demand money. Of course, I didn't pay because I had heard about this behavior before. I stepped on the gas, left them behind, and drove off. I suggest everyone take photos at public viewing platforms to avoid any unpleasant situations.



Hezuo City



Hezuo Grand Mosque

Hezuo Grand Mosque was first built in 1834. It now serves over 10,000 congregants, most of whom are followers of the Huasi menhuan, though others belong to different menhuan. The current building was constructed in 1995.













We stopped briefly in Hezuo to pray and rest before heading south. Along the way, we passed a sea of rapeseed flowers right next to the Hezuo highway. Against the backdrop of blue skies and white clouds, the golden flowers were truly beautiful.





Meiren Grassland



Meiren Grassland

The Meiren Grassland sits at an altitude of over 3,600 meters. It features the alpine meadow landscape unique to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. I first thought the rounded mounds of grass were man-made, but after walking closer, I realized they formed naturally. This landscape forms in low-lying, poorly drained areas of the grassland where marshes develop, shaped by plants, soil, weathering, and freezing.





Prayer flag tunnel (jingfan suidao)

Be careful: while the prayer flag tunnels on the highway are beautiful, do not stop to take photos, as it is dangerous.



The figure in the distance is my father-in-law praying by the side of the road.



Yeliguan Town



Yelinguan Hotel

We arrived in Yeliguan Town that evening and checked into the Yelinguan Hotel. It is one of the better hotels in town, costing over 200 yuan. It is a halal hotel and serves halal breakfast. There are very few halal restaurants in Yeliguan, and there is not much to do in town, so I suggest considering other places to stay overnight.

Day 3: Yeliguan National Forest Park



A filming location for Journey to the West

You can drive into Yeliguan National Forest Park. Tickets are 78 yuan. If you do not have a car, you need to take the park's cable car. There is not much special scenery inside, though there are some farmed deer. To reach the top of the mountain, you need to take another cable car, which costs 20 yuan one way or 40 yuan round trip. If you do not want to pay, you have to hike up for over an hour.



When I was walking in the woods, I did not know it was a filming location for Journey to the West. It just felt familiar, like I had seen it on TV. When I visited Jiuzhaigou in March this year, I checked out one of the filming locations there. I did not expect the 1983 version of Journey to the West to have put so much effort into choosing its outdoor locations.



I do not think Yeliguan Forest Park offers good value for money. If you are struggling to choose between many Gannan attractions, I suggest skipping this one.



After driving for nearly two hours from Yeliguan, we arrived in Lintan County. The small county town in the distance in the photo is Lintan.



The first shop at the entrance of Lintan County is Mayongcheng Laochao. Laochao refers to stir-fried noodle slices (laochao mianpian). Lintan County is full of halal restaurants, and none of them sell alcohol.



Restaurants in the Northwest provide free tea. The server will bring a tea platter, and you can add whatever you like to your cup.



Stir-fried noodle slices (laochao mianpian)

The noodle slices come in a huge bowl; unless you are very hungry, you really cannot finish it. They also sell whole free-range chickens (tu ji) at a cheap price, and they taste great.



A plate of stir-fried free-range chicken pieces

There are a few large, prominent mosques in Lintan County, including the Upper Mosque (Qingzhen Shangsi) and the Grand Huasi Mosque (Qingzhen Huadasi).



Upper Mosque (Shangsi).

The Upper Mosque and the Hua Great Mosque (Hua Da Si) sit next to each other. Both were built in 1380. Records show that the Hui Muslims in Lintan originally came from Zhusi Lane in Nanjing. They were part of the Hui Muslim group that followed Mu Ying on his western military campaign during the Ming Dynasty's Hongwu era. The Ming History records that the construction of the mosque was suggested by the Marquis of Xiping, Mu Ying, and approved by the Ming court. It was modeled after the Huajue Mosque in Chang'an and covers an area of 15 mu. To encourage the soldiers stationed in the area, the Ming court often awarded them plaques to honor their service.







The Lintan County Hua Great Mosque was first built in 1380 (the 13th year of the Hongwu era of the Ming Dynasty). By the early 21st century, it had a history of over 600 years. The Taozhou Prefecture Gazetteer records: 'Mu Ying, the Ming General who conquered the West, arrived in 1380 (the 13th year of Hongwu). The eighteen tribes of Taozhou and three deputy envoys rebelled and occupied the Nalin Seven Stations area. Following the Emperor's orders, Mu Ying led his army to the old city. The rebels fled, but he pursued and captured the three deputy envoys. He built a city at Donglong Mountain and stationed troops there. He returned his army in the sixth month and was named Marquis of Xiping for his achievements.' Historical records state: 'The old Taozhou mosque was in the old city and was renovated in the Dingwei year of the Ming Hongwu era.' At that time, Taozhou only had the Gedimu tradition, but now it follows the Huasi menhuan. The current building was designed by the Architectural Design and Research Institute of Tongji University and was completed in 2019.









Western Hall (Xidaotang) Mosque.

The Western Hall was the main focus of my trip. It originated in Lintan County, Gansu Province. Its founder, Ma Qixi, was skilled at teaching in Chinese. He used Chinese-language classics like Liu Jielian's 'The Nature of Islam' (Tianfang Xingli), 'The Rites of Islam' (Tianfang Dianli), and 'The True Record of the Prophet of Islam' (Tianfang Zhisheng Shilu) for his teachings, which is why it is called the 'Chinese School'.

The founder of the Huasi menhuan, Ma Laichi, spread the teachings of the Khufiyya order. Lintan initially accepted the Khufiyya. When the Huasi menhuan reached the third generation leader Ma Guangzong (known as Beichuan Taiye), his student Ma Baozhen left the Huasi menhuan. He adopted the teachings of the Ishan school from Shache, Xinjiang, and started his own group in Beizhuang, Dongxiang, which became known as the Beizhuang menhuan. Ma Baozhen's student, Min Shangli, served as the 'muleti' (religious leader) for the Beizhuang group stationed in the old city. After Min Shangli passed away, he was buried at the Dazigou gongbei (shrine). His son, Min Yonglu, succeeded him as the 'muleti' in Lintan. After Min Yonglu passed away, he was also buried at the Dazigou gongbei. His son, Min Shida, succeeded him. Min Shida only had two daughters. One daughter married Ma Yuan, who had two sons. One of them was Ma Qixi, which is why Ma Qixi originally belonged to the Beizhuang menhuan.



Ma Qixi was smart and loved to learn. He did well in school from a young age and passed the imperial exam to become a scholar (xiucai). He opened a private school in his hometown of Xifeng Mountain. In 1898, Ma Qixi began teaching in a scripture hall at the Beizhuang gongbei. One faction of the Beizhuang menhuan insisted that people should take off their shoes when performing namaz, while the other faction believed it was not necessary. The Beizhuang 'muleti' Min Yonglu said: 'It is best to take them off, but not taking them off does not violate religious rules.' Ma Qixi thought Min Yonglu was being indecisive and should clearly state whether shoes should be removed or not. This led to a disagreement, and Ma Qixi left the Beizhuang group to start his own.



Ma Qixi had a rational mindset. He strongly advocated for changing old customs, such as cutting off men's long braids, opposing foot-binding for women, and encouraging girls to go to school. In terms of religion, he only considered the 'Five Pillars of Islam' as the complete practice, whereas the Beizhuang menhuan also required the morning and evening recitation of 'dhikr' and quiet meditation.

Ma Qixi realized that to develop education, they needed an economic foundation. Therefore, the Western Hall placed great importance on business and farming. The followers of the Western Hall treated the hall as their home and lived a collective life, creating the prototype of the Western Hall 'Ummah' family.



The Western Hall founded the Lintan Puci Primary School. All children in the hall over the age of 7 were enrolled for free, and they also accepted over 100 children from other local ethnic groups. To solve the problem of girls' education, the Western Hall founded the Lintan Old City Private Qixi Girls' School in 1943, which was free for all girls regardless of their ethnicity.



The Gansu Hui Muslim general Ma Anliang was a follower of the Huasi menhuan. He wanted to use Ma Qixi to attack the Beizhuang menhuan, but Ma Qixi refused, and the two parted on bad terms.

In 1914, Ma Anliang sent his subordinate Zhang Shunyuan to execute Ma Qixi, claiming he had 'colluded with Bai Lang to kill innocent Hui and Han people in the old city.' After Ma Qixi was killed, Ding Quangong succeeded him. The Western Hall did not use a hereditary system; the leader was chosen by public vote and served for life.

In 1917, Ding Quangong and his group were passing through Lintao to visit the grave of the martyred student Ma Wanzhang. They were surrounded by Ma Ying, a local commander appointed by Ma Anliang. Ding Quangong was killed, and Ma Mingren succeeded him as the third leader.

In 1919, Ma Anliang was promoted to Governor of Gansu. While traveling to take up his post, he fell ill at Suonanba in Dongxiang, returned home, and passed away.



The prayer hall of Xidaotang, which looks like the Temple of Heaven.

Ma Mingren mentored Ding Zhengxi. Ding graduated from the Chinese Department of Peking University in 1929, becoming the first university student in Xidaotang history. After graduation, he returned to Xidaotang to handle diplomatic affairs and later served as the magistrate of Hezheng County.



In Guzhan Town, about 10 kilometers from Lintan County, stands the Galutian Big House. It is the only one remaining of the 13 large houses built by Xidaotang and is now a national-level cultural heritage site.



The Galutian Big House is a Tibetan-style building. A key feature of Tibetan architecture is that you cannot see the wood from the outside or the earth from the inside. The house was built to meet the needs of the collective life of the Uma.



There are long benches in front of the main hall for elders to study scriptures and discuss matters, serving as a place for democratic consultation.



Every Xidaotang member living here has their food, clothing, housing, transportation, family education, weddings, funerals, and support provided by the collective.



The Xidaotang constitution states regarding economic management: all income and expenses from collective farming, commerce, forestry, animal husbandry, and sideline businesses are managed, operated, and distributed centrally. The organization has one manager and one deputy manager.



Trade with Tibetan areas was the foundation of Xidaotang's economic development, so the group placed great importance on its relationship with Tibetan people. Most Xidaotang members could speak Tibetan, and the Tibetan people called them 'Qusuoma,' meaning 'new religious friends'. After the Xidaotang elders Ma Mingren and Min Zhidao passed away, hundreds of Tibetan people came to attend their funerals.



The Sixth Jamyang Living Buddha of Labrang Monastery once visited Xidaotang and placed a white silk scarf (hada) on the grave of Elder Ma Qixi, who is buried at the foot of Xifeng Mountain.



Xidaotang is a model for the Sinicization of Islam. To adapt to the social environment of the time, it took many pioneering steps, especially in prioritizing education, particularly for women. This provided continuous momentum for the overall growth of Xidaotang and is worth learning from by other groups.



Ending our trip to Lintan, we drove for four hours that afternoon to return to Xunhua to prepare for Eid al-Adha (Guerbang Jie). view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: The Museum of Art Pudong in Shanghai displayed 300 Louvre artworks from India, Iran, and the Ottoman Empire from December 13, 2025, to May 6, 2026. This article preserves the source's Persian Sufi poetry translations, object notes, historical context, and photographs.

From December 13, 2025, to May 6, 2026, the Museum of Art Pudong in Shanghai displayed 300 artworks from the 16th to 19th centuries from India, Iran, and the Ottoman Empire, all from the Louvre's collection. Many of these items were purchased by King Louis XIV of France (1638-1715) from the Mughal and Ottoman empires and were once used to decorate royal palaces like the Louvre and the Palace of Versailles.

Many of these pieces feature Persian Sufi poetry, but the exhibition hall provided almost no information about them. Fortunately, the Louvre's official website has translations for these poems. You can visit the site, search using the location 'Shanghai,' and view all the items from this Shanghai exhibition at once.





Here are the items from the Shanghai exhibition that feature Persian poetry:

This jade cup from the Iranian Aq Qoyunlu dynasty (1450-1500), once in the collection of King Louis XIV, is inscribed with two Sufi poems in Arabic and Persian:

Because of the purity of the wine and the delicacy of the cup,

The color of the cup and the wine blend into one.

Everything in the world is like a cup,

As if no wine exists,

Or as if everything is fine wine,

And the cup itself is nowhere to be found.

The horizon is stained with the color of the morning sun,

Shedding the cloak of twilight,

Day and night are reconciled,

And all things in the world return to their proper order.

The imagery of the 'cup and wine' is frequently mentioned in Sufi poetry. Sufi sheikhs often use the cup and wine to represent the concepts of 'blending' and 'oneness' in Sufi thought, using the fusion of the two as a metaphor for spiritual elevation and unity. Therefore, when reading Sufi poetry, you should not interpret the meaning only from the surface.

The Arabic in the poem comes from Sahib ibn Abbad, a grand vizier of the Buyid dynasty in 10th-century Iran. He was a Persian scholar from Isfahan, Iran, who had a deep interest in Arabic culture and created many literary works.

The Persian text comes from the famous 15th-century Persian Sufi sheikh, Mir Shams-ud-Din Araqi. Araqi was from Iran and belonged to the Noorbakshia order. He traveled to Kashmir to preach, which led many local Tibetan-speaking Balti people to embrace the faith, leaving a profound impact on the development of the religion in the Kashmir region. After the 16th century, the Nurbakhshiyya order was gradually assimilated by the Twelver Shia sect in Iran, but it has been passed down to this day in the Kashmir region.





A copper alloy jar from the Mughal or Safavid dynasty, dating between 1585 and 1615, was once used to hold gemstones. Engraved on it is a poem from the 'Divan' by the famous 15th-century Persian Sufi poet Jami:

Your ruby cup is made from the pearls of the soul.

The longing of every person withered by love is hidden within this cup.

Everything that was once hidden behind the veil of the unseen,

Becomes clearly visible in the form of love.

This is the opening of a Sufi ode and a classic text where religious artifact art, Sufism, and Persian poetry become one. The 'withered person' refers to a seeker whose soul is tempered and obsessed with the love of Allah. The 'veil of the unseen' refers to the barrier between the secular world and the divine essence, where the mundane cannot glimpse the ultimate beauty and subtlety of Allah. 'Love' refers to the ultimate devotion to Allah, which is the only path to break through the veil of the unseen.

The cup in the poem is the physical manifestation of the soul's essence, corresponding to the Sufi ontology that 'all existence is a manifestation of Allah'. The divine nature is hidden by the 'veil of the unseen,' and divine love is the only power that can remove this cover. The seeker's devotion is poured into the object, turning the invisible divine subtlety into the visible beauty of the cup's body. The 'longing' hidden in the cup is the original intention of the Sufi practitioner and their yearning for Allah. The object becomes a 'medium' for practice; holding the cup and contemplating it means contemplating the connection between one's own soul and the divine.



A copper alloy candlestick from the Safavid or Mughal dynasty, dating between 1585 and 1600, has two Persian Sufi poems engraved on its upper and middle sections. The upper poem is by the Khorasan poet Mulla Hayrati Tuni (died 1554):

When the soul burns because of the love of an idol,

Love burns me every moment with another flame.

I am just like a butterfly near a candle flame,

If I take one step forward, my wings will be burned away.

I burn in the pain of loving you, and this burning has already witnessed,

The glory of the candle flame burning above me.

'Idol love' in the poem does not refer to worshipping material idols, but is a common rhetorical device in Sufi literature. It uses 'idol' to represent secular love or obsession with non-divine things, contrasting it with pure love for Allah to highlight the intensity and exclusivity of divine love.

The middle poem is from the famous 'Butterfly and Candle' passage in the masterpiece 'Bustan' (The Orchard) by the great Persian poet Saadi (1210-1291).

I remember a dim night.

With eyes closed, I heard a butterfly say to the candle flame,

I am worn out for love.

Burning is also a form of completion.

Why so many tears?

Why exhaust yourself?

The butterfly and the candle flame is a classic metaphor in Persian Sufi poetry. The butterfly represents the soul longing to unite with Allah, and the candle flame represents divine love and the light of Allah. Throwing oneself into the fire to burn one's wings means the soul is willing to dissolve itself in pursuit of divine love. It is a poetic expression of the Sufi state of selflessness.





A copper alloy candlestick from the Safavid or Mughal dynasty, dating between 1550 and 1600. The upper part is inscribed with Persian Sufi verses, also by the Khorasan poet Mulla Hairati Tuni, titled When the soul burns for the love of the idol.









A bronze candlestick from the 16th-century Mughal or Safavid dynasty. The upper part of the candlestick shaft is divided into four panels, each engraved with a Persian Sufi quatrain:

The lamp of the gnostic shines because of your face.

I see you, and the souls of all who know the heart turn toward your face.

My heart looks to you, for you are the ultimate destination of the universe.

May not a single hair on your head perish, for this world relies entirely on you.

In the poem, the gnostic refers to a practitioner in a Sufi order seeking inner enlightenment, and those who know the heart refers to Sufi mystics or those with spiritual awareness. This poem was written during the 15th-century Timurid dynasty, but it was very common on metalware and ceramics during the 16th-century Safavid dynasty.





A tinned copper bowl from the Safavid dynasty, dating from 1585 to 1650. It is engraved with the Persian name Firuz-i Rustam-i Firuz, which belonged to a Safavid court noble. Rustam is taken from the hero in the Persian epic Shahnameh, symbolizing bravery and nobility.

The bowl is engraved with two Persian Sufi quatrains:

This cup is filled with the nectar of the Kawthar spring.

Its outline is just like the lines of a beauty's cheek.

Whoever drinks the sweet dew from this cup,

Will be like Khidr, possessing the breath that gives life.

I travel fast through the desert of your love,

And see two thousand bloodthirsty black men.

They spoke to each other in mysterious, coded language:

Tilt the cup in your hand, but do not spill it!

The Kawsar (Kawsar) is the sacred pond in Paradise mentioned in the scriptures, known as the 'Pool of Abundance.' On the Day of Resurrection, people will rise from thirst, and the noble Prophet will offer the believers refreshing water from the pool.

'Desert' and 'cup' sound similar in Persian, so they are common metaphors in Sufi poetry. They refer to the use of the vessel while expressing a persistent search for divine love.

Khidr (Khidr) is considered by the faith to be an immortal saint, symbolizing life, wisdom, and guidance.







A bronze bath bucket from the Safavid or Mughal dynasty, dating between 1585 and 1615, is inscribed with Persian poetry:

When my moon-faced beauty steps into the bathhouse, I rise

I fill my eyes with water and pour it over her feet

To bathe you, oh, blooming rose

The sun becomes a golden cup, the new moon becomes the handle

Whenever my moon-faced beauty steps into the bathhouse

The water cup is my eye, and the eyebrow is its handle

This is a specialized bucket for a traditional Middle Eastern public bath (hammam), used to carry toiletries or hold water, and was a daily object for the wealthy class at the time. Using parts of everyday objects to describe a lover's appearance is a common rhetorical technique in Persian poetry. Blending the bathing scene with intense longing is a classic expression of the 'lover' (ashiq) theme in religious art.







A bronze bath bucket from the Safavid dynasty dated 1589 is inscribed with the same Persian poem as the previous one, along with the name 'Giyan Big' and the date '998,' which corresponds to the Hijri year 998 or 1589-90 AD.





An underglaze painted ceramic plate from the Safavid dynasty, dating between 1585 and 1615, is inscribed with a Persian quatrain:

May this plate always be full of blessings and delicious food

Long accompanying the table of elegant scholars and good friends

May the delicacies in the plate never run dry

Whoever eats from this plate (will have health and longevity)

This anonymous lyric poem was popular at the time and is commonly found on metal and ceramic wares used by the Safavid court and nobility. After the Safavid dynasty moved its capital to Isfahan in 1587, ceramic art was influenced by Chinese Wanli blue-and-white porcelain, leading to mass production of blue and white glazed wares. Meanwhile, Persian poetic inscriptions became a signature decoration for high-end items, reflecting the Safavid dynasty's appreciation for literature and calligraphy.





A miniature painting from the Bukhara Khanate between 1585 and 1600 shows an Uzbek or Mongol warrior leaning against a large Chinese porcelain vase. Above it is a Persian couplet:

Kissing our wine cup

They lift it to their foreheads

The fate of a wine lover

Is tied to the pattern on the rim of the cup

This is a classic wine and cup image in Sufi literature. In these Persian miniature poems, the wine cup symbolizes a spiritual vessel for union with Allah, and drinking symbolizes spiritual intoxication and soul awakening.





A Mughal dynasty calligraphy album page from 1772-1789 with floral decorations, featuring a Persian lyric poem:

I can no longer ask you for more, nor can I beg you

I can give up all hope for myself, but I can never give up on you

Written by the sinful servant Ali Reza. May Allah forgive him.

Using worldly love to describe absolute devotion to Allah is a classic pattern in classical Persian literature. Giving up the self while being unable to let go of the beloved is the core spirit of Sufi selflessness and devotion.





A portrait of a young man made during the Safavid dynasty in 1560. Persian poetry is written around it:

I long again for the breeze of the garden

My heart yearns for the beauty of the cypress and jasmine

The cypress symbolizes uprightness, immortality, and the integrity of a gentleman; it is an eternal image of nobility in Persian poetry. Jasmine represents fragrance and softness. Together with the cypress, they balance strength and gentleness, creating a perfect blend of nature and humanity in Persian aesthetics. The poem uses the garden scenery to express a longing for beautiful nature and pure states of mind, which is a typical way to express feelings through scenery in religious art.



A Rose and Nightingale book cover from the Qajar dynasty in Iran, 1775-1825. This period in Iran was the founding and consolidation of the Qajar dynasty. Fath-Ali Shah highly valued art, and court workshops gathered top lacquer artists. The center of the image shows irises, hyacinths, carnations, roses, and hazelnuts, surrounded by verses from The Orchard (Bustan) by the great Persian poet Saadi:

A rose without scent or color is a strange thing, and the nightingale would never fall in love with it.

O wise one, I admire its character and soul, not its handsome appearance.

The rose and nightingale theme matches the book cover decoration. Here, the idea that a nightingale still loves a rose without scent or color suggests that love is not based on looks, but on inner character and loyalty. This is a common moral poem in religious book binding, used to explain the values of true love, loyalty, and prioritizing the heart over material things.

The rose and nightingale is also one of the most classic themes in Persian Sufi literature and art, symbolizing the Sufi practitioner's longing for Allah.







A glazed ceramic bowl from the Qajar dynasty of Iran, dated 1808-09.

The center features a lyric poem by the great Persian poet Hafez:

Last night I saw angels busy in the tavern.

They kneaded the essence of human souls and poured it into a wine cup.

Written in the city on the first day of the month following Rabi al-Awwal.

Made by the craftsman Ramazan in the year 1223 of the Hijri calendar.

This is a typical Sufi poem. The tavern symbolizes a spiritual retreat, the essence of human souls (guli adam) represents personified spiritual knowledge, and the wine cup symbolizes a spiritual vessel for communion with Allah.

The first line around the edge contains verses from The Rose Garden (Gulistan) by the great Persian poet Saadi:

One day, I picked up a piece of scented clay dropped by a loved one,

I was intoxicated and obsessed by its fragrance,

So I asked: 'Are you ambergris, or are you musk?'

The clay replied softly:

'I was originally just a piece of common, humble earth,

But because I stayed close to a rose,

I became stained with the noble character of my companion,

Even though my essence remains the same, my spirit has become something different.'

This poem is a classic fable from The Rose Garden. Its core message is that character comes from one's companions, and that one's environment and friends can elevate an ordinary nature. By comparing itself to common earth and using the rose to represent good friends, wise people, and noble souls, it expresses the philosophy that one becomes like those they associate with. This fits the tradition of religious moral literature while using beautiful imagery suitable for ceramic housewares, making it a representative literary decoration for Iranian practical ceramics from the 18th and 19th centuries. Glazed ceramics from 18th and 19th-century Iran often featured famous lines from Persian poets like Saadi, Hafez, and Rumi, serving practical, aesthetic, and literary purposes.

The second line around the edge contains a Persian Sufi proverb:

The fool who gives his soul never leaves the path of the wise.

The nightingale with a heart burned by love never leaves the rose garden.

The true nature of a sincere lover is just like this.

Even if their head falls, they do not break their oath or promise.

The "nightingale with a heart burned by love" is a classic theme in Persian poetry, representing a seeker who sacrifices everything for love. While the oath refers to romantic love, it actually symbolizes loyalty to the path of Allah.

The third line around the edge comes from the narrative poem "Shapur and Shirin" (Maṯnawī-ye Šāpūr va Šhnāz):

One night, a performer sighed to himself in the wilderness.

In these mountains and deserts, where must I wander?

Come, let us spread our wings and fly to the royal city.

To talk and keep company with princes and nobles.

Sometimes acting as a close friend at the king's banquet.

This is a couplet from a classical Persian epic, a long romantic poem. It uses wandering in the wilderness to represent life's confusion and the royal city to represent ideals, power, and spiritual destination, making it perfect for decorating court-style objects.





A glazed ceramic bowl from the Qajar dynasty of Iran, dated 1800–1815.

The bottom of the bowl says:

For all who recite scripture and offer dua for me, I have my own hopes.

Because I am only a lowly servant burdened by sin.

The surrounding area features verses from the book "The Orchard" (Bustan) by the great Persian poet Saadi.

One day, I picked up a piece of scented clay dropped by a loved one,

I was intoxicated and obsessed by its fragrance,

So I asked: 'Are you ambergris, or are you musk?'

The clay replied softly:

'I was originally just a piece of common, humble earth,

But because I stayed close to a rose,

I became stained with the noble character of my companion,

Even though my essence remains the same, my spirit has become something different.'



A glazed ceramic bowl from the Qajar dynasty of Iran, dating to 1820-1821.

The bottom of the bowl says:

For all who recite scripture and offer dua for me, I have my own hopes.

Because I am only a lowly servant burdened by sin.

The inscription along the inner rim of the bowl reads:

Drink up, you gentle and sweet-mannered beauty.

Come drink this water of life from the palm of my hand.

May you drink in joy all your life, and be safe and healthy year after year.

May life be sweeter than rock sugar (bingtang), granulated sugar (shatang), dried fruits, and fragrant herbs.

There is also a fragment of a Shia text: Drink this water, you... fragrant lips, keep Ali and Abbas in your heart, and remember the grace of the king.

Ali was the fourth Caliph of the faith, and Abbas was a martyr of the Battle of Karbala.

The first part is a humble prayer poem at the bottom of the bowl, expressing the user's humility and desire for blessings. The second part is a celebratory poem for banquets on the rim, using the imagery of the water of life to encourage drinking and wish for a long, sweet life. The third part commemorates the Shia sages Ali and Abbas, serving both dining etiquette and devotional purposes. Together, these three parts form a typical inscription pattern for daily ritual vessels of the Qajar period, blending secular banquet culture, religious ethics, and Shia faith, serving as an important example of how classical Persian literature continued on everyday objects.



A glazed ceramic tile from Ottoman Syria, dating to 1570-1620, inscribed with Persian poetry:

Your poetry feast makes the heavens dance at this moment,

The poems of Hafez, with their sweet words and wonderful language, are your songs.

This is the final couplet of a classic lyric poem (ghazal) by the great Persian poet Hafez, and it is also a classical Persian couplet (masnavi).

In this context, the 'poetry feast (majlisat)' refers to a sacred gathering in the Sufi tradition where the divine and human connect. In Sufi literature, this poem means that the beauty and wisdom of Allah are the source of the universe's movement, and poetry is a way to speak about divine beauty. The heavens dance for the poetic feast, not for human entertainment, but because they are called by the beauty of sacred words. Hafiz's poetry turns divine beauty into human language, acting as a bridge between the mortal world and the heavens.





A copper ewer from the Safavid or Mughal dynasty in 1615 is engraved with a Persian classical lyric couplet (mathnawī):

At the feast of the enlightened, servants stand ready to serve.

Beauties from all directions stand holding pure water ewers.

The beloved washes their hands with soul and heart.

As the beauty pours the water, she still holds the ewer in her hand.

In Sufi literature, the "feast of the enlightened" refers to a Sufi gathering, "the beloved" refers to one who loves Allah, "water" refers to Allah's grace, and "washing with soul and heart" means cleansing the soul of worldly distractions and selfish desires, while "beauties" refers to the ways Allah's grace is delivered. Sufi practice emphasizes being clean in body and soul. Washing hands is not just a matter of hygiene; it is a spiritual ritual to wash away the dust of the soul with sacred water and offer sincerity to Allah. The poem turns an everyday object into a spiritual vessel for those seeking the Sufi path.





A 16th-century copper plate from the Safavid dynasty is engraved with three Persian poetic couplets.

The first couplet is from the Orchard (Bustan) by the great Persian poet Saadi:

May you enjoy all you wish for in this world, and may the heavens be your close friend.

May the Lord of Creation protect you forever.

The second couplet is from the work of the Persian poet Daqiqi:

May everything go as you wish.

May the Lord God protect your health.

The third couplet is from the story of Bijan and Manijeh in the Book of Kings (Shahnameh) by the great Persian poet Ferdowsi:

May the high heavens follow your heart's desire.

May the evil eye never be able to harm you.





A copper ewer with a dragon-shaped handle from Herat, Afghanistan, during the Timurid dynasty, dated 1480-1500.

The craftsman's signature on the bottom of the ewer reads: A work by Abd al-Husayn ibn Mubarak Shah.

Four panels on the belly of the ewer are engraved with lyric poetry by the 12th-13th century Persian Sufi poet Qasim al-Anwar.

When the eastern shadow of the eternal dawn appears

The beautiful face of the Beloved emerges from the dust of creation

The jar of eternal wine was clear and without dregs from the start

After entering my heart's cup, it reaches an even purer state

This poem is a typical Sufi literary work, using the morning shadow as a metaphor for the manifestation of Allah, and wine to represent the infusion of divinity into the heart and the purification of the soul.

The four panels on the neck of the pot are carved with another Persian poem, though unfortunately, it can no longer be fully read:

The star of fortune has arrived at your orbit and conjunction

...among the free

...a copper cup

A drinking vessel for those intoxicated by love... a place for drinking

This poem continues the Sufi metaphorical tradition of wine, love, and auspicious signs, sharing the same poetic lineage as the poem on the belly of the pot. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This first part of the Cairo mosque journey begins with early landmarks such as Al-Hakim Mosque and Al-Aqmar Mosque. It preserves the source's mosque names, founding years, dynastic context, street route, architectural details, and photographs.

Al-Hakim Mosque: 1013

Al-Aqmar Mosque: 1125

Al-Ashraf Mosque: 1424

Al-Azhar Mosque: 972

Al-Hussein Mosque: built in 1154, rebuilt in 1874

Abu al-Dhahab Mosque: 1774

Al-Muayyad Mosque: 1415

Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque: 1160

Mahmud al-Kurdi Mosque: 1395

Qijmas al-Ishaqi Mosque: 1480

Mosque of Ahmad al-Mihmandar: 1324

Mosque of Amir Altinbugha al-Mardani: 1338

Mosque of Umm al-Sultan Sha'ban: 1368

Blue Mosque: 1347

Sayyida Fatima Mosque: 18th-century expansion

Khayrbak Mosque: 1519

Sultan Hasan Mosque: 1356

Rifa'i Mosque: 1869.

Ibn Tulun Mosque: 876.

Taghribirdi Mosque: 1440

Shaykhu Mosque: 1349

Qanibay al-Muhammadi Mosque: 1413

Al-Hakim Mosque: 1013

Right next to the north wall of Old Cairo is the Al-Hakim Mosque. It is named after the sixth caliph of the Fatimid dynasty, who was also the 16th imam of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (reigned 996-1021). The Al-Hakim Mosque was started in 990 by the fifth Fatimid Caliph, al-Aziz Billah (reigned 975-996), and finished in 1013 by Caliph al-Hakim. It is now 1,012 years old.

The mosque originally sat outside the Cairo city walls, but it was brought inside after the walls were rebuilt in 1087. Its architectural style is similar to the Al-Azhar Mosque, but it is twice as large. The most striking features are the two minarets built on square brick bases. When the minarets were first built in 1003, they were separate structures. They were not encased in brick until 1010. Some scholars suggest this change relates to 1010, when the ruler of Mecca rejected Fatimid authority, weakening the dynasty's power. The outer wall of the southern brick base has Fatimid-era marble carvings in Kufic script. Because the northern base was incorporated into the northern wall of Old Cairo in 1087, its Kufic carvings were moved to the outside of the city wall.

During the Crusades, the Franks used the mosque as a prison. Later, Saladin used it as a stable. It was repaired during the Mamluk period in the 14th century, but it eventually fell into ruin for a long time. The mosque was repaired in 1808, and a small, colorful marble mihrab added during that time still exists today.

In the 20th century, the mosque served as a school until 1980, when the Dawoodi Bohra branch of Shia Islam carried out a massive reconstruction and renovation using white marble. Inside the main hall after the reconstruction, only the original plaster carvings, wooden beams, and scripture remained. This restoration was criticized by scholars for being 'inauthentic' and sparked widespread debate. In 2017, the Dawoodi Bohra community and the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities launched a new round of repairs, and the mosque did not reopen until February 2023.



















Al-Aqmar Mosque: 1125

Walking south from the Al-Hakim Mosque along Al-Mu'izz Street, the main road of Old Cairo, you can see the famous Fatimid-era Aqmar Mosque. The Aqmar Mosque was built in 1125-1126 by order of the Fatimid vizier Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi. It sat at the northeast corner of the Fatimid Eastern Palace, right next to the palace grounds.

The Aqmar Mosque is a landmark in Egyptian architectural history. It was the first mosque with a main entrance aligned with the street rather than the qibla wall, meaning it was the first planned according to Cairo's street layout. It was also the first to feature complex stone carvings. The facade of the Aqmar Mosque is very luxurious. Above the entrance is a medallion surrounded by a grille, with the names of the Prophet and Ali in the center and scripture around it—a unique decoration in Cairo.

At the top of the left facade are carvings of doors and windows. The window on the left symbolizes the ceremonial grille the Fatimids took back from the palace of their rivals, the Abbasids in Baghdad, representing victory. Inside the window are a lamp and a six-pointed star, based on the Shia hadith: 'The star is a promise to the world, and it will not be submerged.' Below the window are carvings of plants growing from a flower pot, referencing the Prophet's words about Hasan and Husayn: 'My two fragrant herbs in the world.' The door in the upper right corner comes from the famous Shia hadith: 'I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate.'

Because it was near the Fatimid palace, the Aqmar Mosque originally had no minaret. One was added by the Mamluk dynasty at the end of the 14th century, and the cylindrical top was rebuilt during the Ottoman period.

In 1993, the Dawoodi Bohras branch of Shia Islam carried out a large-scale renovation of the Aqmar Mosque. Most of the historical elements inside the main hall were not preserved, which led to criticism.



















Al-Ashraf Mosque: 1424

The Ashraf Mosque (Al-Ashraf Mosque) was built in 1424 by the Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Barsbay, who reigned from 1422 to 1438. The complex includes a main prayer hall, a school, a tomb, and a Sufi lodge (khanqah). It features a dome with geometric carvings, which is an early example of decorative dome carving.

Barsbay was once a Mamluk slave of Sultan Barquq and later served as a tutor to the young Sultan Muhammad. With support from the governor of Damascus and other emirs, Barsbay deposed the young sultan in 1422 and took the throne himself.

Barsbay’s 16-year reign was a time of relative safety and stability for the Mamluk Sultanate, with almost no wars. He was very generous to the poor and to Sufis, and he carried out a series of administrative reforms.

People called Barsbay the Merchant Sultan because he placed great importance on trade. He took steps to strengthen control over the Mediterranean and Red Seas, diverted Indian Ocean trade routes through Jeddah, and created state monopolies on sugar and pepper. He lowered tariffs to attract merchants and monopolized most of the trade from the East, which angered many European powers.



















Al-Azhar Mosque: 972

In 969 AD, the Shia Ismaili Fatimid dynasty conquered Egypt and began building their new capital, Cairo. At that time, the densely populated Sunni city of Fustat already existed south of Cairo, so the new city became the center for the Shia Ismaili faith.

After two years of construction, the first Friday mosque (Jami) in Cairo opened in 972 and was named the Cairo Mosque (Jami al-Qahira) after the city. The Cairo Mosque was later renamed the Al-Azhar Mosque (al-Jami al-Azhar), with Al-Azhar meaning the Radiant.

After the Al-Azhar Mosque opened, the Ismailis moved from secret to public preaching. The mosque's first chief judge, Qadi al-Numan, became the founder of Ismaili law and the author of the authoritative Ismaili text, The Pillars of Islam (Kitab da'a'im al-Islam).

The main hall of the Al-Azhar Mosque is a columned hall. The marble columns in the four rows of arcades came from ruins of the Pharaohs, ancient Rome, and the Copts, and they were leveled using bases of different heights.

The roof of the main hall originally had three domes, but none survived later renovations. The original mihrab was rediscovered in 1933, and the niche still preserves ornate stucco carvings from the Fatimid period.

Several Fatimid caliphs expanded and renovated the Al-Azhar Mosque. Caliph al-Hafiz, who reigned from 1132 to 1149, carried out a major renovation in 1138. The four-centered arches in the courtyard and the dome at the entrance to the main hall date from this time. The stucco carvings in the courtyard also come from this period, though they were renovated again in 1891.



















In 1171, Saladin overthrew the Fatimid dynasty and established the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty. The Friday prayers for Cairo moved to the Hakim Mosque in the north of the city, and the Al-Azhar Mosque was neglected because it had been the center of the Ismaili faith. Saladin removed the silver bands from the mihrab niche of the Al-Azhar Mosque that bore the names of the Fatimid caliphs and destroyed all the Ismaili manuscripts kept in the mosque.

It was not until 1266 that the Mamluk Sultan Baybars, who reigned from 1260 to 1277, restored Friday prayers at the Al-Azhar Mosque and repaired the building. The Ayyubid dynasty followed the Shafi'i school of law, which held that a community should have only one main Friday mosque. The Mamluk dynasty followed the Hanafi school, which did not have this rule.

The Mamluk dynasty left two grand minarets at Al-Azhar Mosque: the Qaytbay minaret and the twin minarets of Al-Ghuri, along with the Qaytbay Gate. The Qaytbay minaret was built in 1483 or 1495 and features three balconies decorated with ornate carvings. The Qaytbay Gate was built in 1495 and leads directly into the courtyard. Both are exquisite examples of late Mamluk architecture. During the reign of Sultan Qaytbay (1468-96), the Mamluk dynasty was politically and economically stable and won several military victories against the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan was very interested in art and architecture and sponsored as many as 230 buildings.

In 1509, the Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri (reigned 1501-16) built the twin minarets of Al-Ghuri. Al-Ghuri was the last powerful ruler of the Mamluk dynasty. He was eventually defeated by the Ottoman Empire and fell on the battlefield in Syria.



















In 1517, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Mamluk dynasty and occupied Egypt, causing the status of Al-Azhar Mosque to decline once again. It was not until after the 18th century, when the Mamluk elite regained influence in Egypt, that renovations and expansions of Al-Azhar Mosque continued.

In 1749, Abd al-Rahman was appointed as the head of the guards (Katkhuda). In 1753, he oversaw the construction of three Ottoman-style gates for Al-Azhar Mosque: the Barbers' Gate (Bab al-Muzayinīn), the Gate of the Upper Egyptians (Bab al-Sa'ayida), and the Soup Gate (Bab al-Shurba). Outside the Barbers' Gate was where students got their hair cut, 'Sa'ayida' means people from Upper Egypt, and the Soup Gate was where students went to get soup. From then on, the Barbers' Gate became the main entrance to Al-Azhar Mosque.

Abd al-Rahman also doubled the size of the main prayer hall of Al-Azhar Mosque to the south and added a new mihrab, giving the hall its current shape. After Abd al-Rahman died in 1776, he was buried inside Al-Azhar Mosque, becoming the last person in history to be buried there.

After the 18th century, Al-Azhar Mosque became the most influential educational institution in Egypt, and the ulama (scholars) could report to the Pasha (governor) as official advisors.

Napoleon occupied Cairo on July 22, 1798. On October 21, an uprising against the French broke out at Al-Azhar Mosque. Napoleon shelled the mosque directly from the Cairo Citadel, resulting in over 3,000 Egyptian casualties and the death of six Al-Azhar ulama. Napoleon's troops tied their horses to the mihrab of Al-Azhar Mosque and ransacked the student dormitories and the library. In 1800, the commander-in-chief of the French expeditionary force was assassinated by an Al-Azhar student, after which Napoleon ordered the closure of Al-Azhar Mosque. In June 1801, Cairo was recaptured by the British and the Ottoman Empire, and Al-Azhar Mosque reopened.



















Between 1892 and 1901, the last Khedive (viceroy) of Ottoman Egypt, Abbas II Hilmi Pasha, rebuilt the facade of Al-Azhar Mosque as part of a wave of modernization in British-occupied Egypt. At the same time, Al-Azhar University also carried out educational reforms to oppose fundamentalism. To mitigate the impact of the Saudi Wahhabi movement, many students from Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia came to study at Al-Azhar University during this period.

The last two pictures show the Fatimid dynasty stucco carvings restored by the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Art Monuments during the reign of Abbas II Hilmi Pasha.













Al-Hussein Mosque: built in 1154, rebuilt in 1874

Across from Al-Azhar Mosque is Al-Hussein Mosque, where Shia Muslims believe the head of Imam Hussein is buried. The mosque was first built in 1154, but its current appearance dates to a reconstruction in 1874.

The Fatimid dynasty believed the Abbasid dynasty secretly moved Imam Hussein's head from the Umayyad Mosque cemetery in Damascus. The Fatimids rediscovered it in 1091 and built a shrine for it in Ashkelon, Palestine.

In 1153, the Fatimid dynasty ordered the head of Hussein moved to Cairo to be buried with past Fatimid caliphs, and they built Al-Hussein Mosque in 1154. The lower part of the south gate of Al-Hussein Mosque still keeps its original Fatimid structure.

Al-Hussein Mosque was rebuilt by the Ayyubid dynasty in 1237, but it later burned down, leaving only one Ayyubid minaret today.

In 1874, Isma'il Pasha (reigned 1863-79), the ruler of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, rebuilt Al-Hussein Mosque in a Gothic Revival style and added a minaret blending Gothic and Ottoman styles. During his rule, Isma'il Pasha modernized Egypt on a large scale, trying to align Egypt with Europe, and the renovation of Al-Hussein Mosque was part of this effort.

In 1893, a room for Prophet Muhammad's relics (Bab al-Mukhallafat al-Nabawiyya) was added next to the shrine. It holds four strands of the Prophet's hair, a linen cloak he wore, a lantern, a copper kohl applicator, a staff, and a sword given to him by a companion.

The center of the shrine today is a metal grille (Zarih) made in Mumbai in 1965 by Taher Saifuddin, the leader of the Dawoodi Bohras. It is said this Zarih was originally designed for the shrine of Abbas ibn Ali in Karbala, but it could not be installed there. Taher Saifuddin believed this was guided by Allah, so he had the Zarih flown to Cairo and installed in Al-Hussein Mosque.



















Abu al-Dhahab Mosque: 1774

Right next to the west wall of Al-Azhar Mosque is the Abu al-Dhahab Mosque, built in 1774 by the Egyptian Mamluk ruler Abu al-Dhahab. This was the last large building complex the Mamluks built in Egypt, but only the mosque remains today.

Abu al-Dhahab means 'Father of Gold,' and he was a wealthy and generous Mamluk emir. During the Russo-Turkish War, the Egyptian Mamluk emir Ali Bey declared independence from the Ottoman Empire, and Abu al-Dhahab led troops to conquer most of the Hejaz and Syria. After taking Damascus in 1772, Abu al-Dhahab turned his army to occupy Cairo, becoming the actual ruler of Egypt until he died suddenly of the plague in 1775 while conquering Palestine.

The architecture of Abu al-Dhahab Mosque mixes different elements, including Mamluk-style outer walls, Ottoman-style domes, and a minaret inspired by the early 16th-century minaret of the nearby Sultan Qaytbay complex.



















The prayer niche (mihrab) and the pulpit (minbar) of Abu al-Dhahab Mosque feature Mamluk-style decorations inlaid with mother-of-pearl and marble.

















Al-Muayyad Mosque: 1415

Right next to the south gate of the old city of Cairo is the Sultan Al-Mu'ayyad Mosque, built between 1415 and 1421 by the Mamluk Sultan Al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh (reigned 1412-1421). This site was originally a prison, and legend says Sultan Al-Mu'ayyad was held here when he was young. At the time, he suffered greatly from fleas and lice, so he made a dua that if he ever became Sultan, he would turn the site into a place for teaching and learning. This wish later came true.

With the Sultan's funding, the madrasa inside the Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Mosque became one of Cairo's most famous academic institutions in the 15th century. The large endowment left after the Sultan passed away allowed the school to hire the most brilliant scholars of the time. Ibn Hajar 'Asqalani, the most famous authority on Islamic jurisprudence in Egypt, taught Shafi'i law here.

The madrasa at the Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Mosque taught the four schools of Islamic law: Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali. According to mosque records, the school could accommodate 50 Hanafi students, 40 Shafi'i students, 15 Maliki students, and 10 Hanbali students, along with their teachers and imams. There were also two classes with 20 students each dedicated to studying Quranic exegesis and Hadith.

The Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Mosque is the last large hypostyle mosque in Cairo. It originally had four facades, but today only the east side and the main prayer hall remain from the original structure. The mosque's main gate is known as the last grand gate of the Mamluk dynasty. It is decorated with beautiful geometric marble patterns, Kufic calligraphy, and complex stucco carvings.



















The main prayer hall of the Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Mosque was one of the most ornate in Egypt at the time, and the qibla wall is decorated with colorful marble. The supporting stone columns were collected from Cairo and the surrounding areas, and they likely date back to the pre-Islamic era. The circular colorful marble decoration above the mihrab is also very unique, as this style was almost always used for floors rather than walls. Turkish tiles were added to the qibla wall in the 1840s, but they were removed to restore the original design during a 2001 renovation.



















The Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Mosque features exquisite wood carvings from the Mamluk period, including the minbar, wooden doors, and ceilings. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This Old Cairo travel account walks inside the northern gate of the historic city and follows its mosques, streets, gates, and layered Islamic history. It keeps the original place names, dates, buildings, and travel route without adding outside claims.

The history of Cairo as a city goes back over a thousand years. Back in the ancient Roman era, the Romans built the Babylon Fortress in the south of Cairo. After the Arabs took Cairo in 641 AD, they built the city of Fustat to the northeast of the Babylon Fortress. Over the next 300 years, Muslim rulers from different dynasties built several cities near Cairo, but none of them survived. In 969 AD, the Shia Fatimid dynasty conquered Egypt and spent four years building what is now the old city of Cairo. By this count, the old city of Cairo is now 1,055 years old.

The walls of old Cairo were started in 969 AD. They were first made of brick, then expanded with stone during the reign of the Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir Billah (reigned 1036-1094), and finally finished in 1087. The north gates of the old city, the Gate of Conquest (Bab al-Futuh) and the Gate of Victory (Bab al-Nasr), were both built during this time. In this article, I will take you through the north gate into old Cairo to experience its thousand-year history.

Gate of Conquest and Gate of Conquest: 1087

The Gate of Conquest is 22 meters high and has two round towers. The stone carving details may have been influenced by Syrian or Byzantine craftsmen. Above the arch, the surface is covered in diamond patterns containing rosettes and crosses. The parts of the towers that hang outward are carved with ram heads, which are symbols of Mars in the zodiac. Inside the gate, the dome and the rectangular space connect through a pendentive, which is a typical feature of Byzantine architecture.









The Gate of Victory is on the east side of the Gate of Conquest. Unlike the round towers of the Gate of Conquest, the towers of the Gate of Victory are square and contain guard rooms and living areas. There are shield carvings above the gate, which symbolize protecting the city from invasion. The shield features an Arabic inscription from its 1087 reconstruction, along with a Shia version of the Shahada that mentions Ali as the friend (wali) of Allah.











Al-Hakim Mosque: 1013.

Right next to the northern wall of Old Cairo stands the Al-Hakim Mosque, named after the sixth Fatimid caliph and the 16th imam of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (reigned 996-1021). The mosque was started in 990 by the fifth Fatimid caliph, al-Aziz Billah (reigned 975-996), and finished in 1013 by Caliph al-Hakim, making it 1,010 years old today.

The Al-Hakim Mosque was originally outside the walls of Cairo, but it was brought inside the city after the walls were rebuilt in 1087. The mosque's architectural style is similar to the Al-Azhar Mosque, but it is twice as large. The most striking features inside are the two minarets built on square brick bases. When the minarets were first built in 1003, they were separate structures, and they were only encased in brick in 1010. Some scholars suggest this might be linked to the ruler of Mecca rejecting Fatimid authority in 1010, which weakened the dynasty's power. The outer wall of the southern brick base has marble Kufic Arabic inscriptions from the Fatimid period, while the Kufic inscriptions on the northern base were moved to the outside of the city wall when it was incorporated into the northern wall of Old Cairo in 1087.

During the Crusades, the mosque was used as a prison by the Franks and later as a stable by Saladin. It was renovated during the Mamluk period in the 14th century but later fell into ruins for a long time. The mosque was renovated in 1808, and a small, colorful marble mihrab added during that time still survives today.

In the 20th century, the mosque served as a school until 1980, when the Dawoodi Bohra branch of Shia Islam carried out a massive reconstruction and renovation using white marble. Inside the main hall after the reconstruction, only the original stucco carvings, wooden beams, and scriptures were preserved. This restoration caused a lack of authenticity that sparked criticism and widespread discussion among scholars. In 2017, the Dawoodi Bohra community and the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities launched a new round of restoration, and it did not reopen until February 2023.



















Caravanserai of Qaitbay: 1481

Enter the old city of Cairo through the Gate of Victory (Bab al-Futuh) onto El-Gamaleya Street. The first thing you see is the caravanserai (wikala) of Sultan Qaitbay, which is currently under renovation. It was built in 1481 by Sultan Qaitbay (reigned 1468-1496) of the Mamluk dynasty. Qaitbay was one of the Mamluk sultans who sponsored the most architecture. Although the Mamluk dynasty was in decline, the situation remained relatively stable under his rule, and trade flourished.

Like other Mamluk caravanserais (wikala), this place not only provided short-term housing for passing caravans but also offered long-term rental apartment units (rab). It was used as apartments for hundreds of years until the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities began renovations in 2015. Work is still ongoing, and you can still see the wooden lattice windows (mashrabiya) facing the street.





Gate of the Caravanserai of Qawsun: 1341

Continuing south, you can see the remains of the gate of the caravanserai (wikala) of Emir Qawsun. This inn was built in 1341 by the famous Mamluk Emir Qawsun (1302-1342). It was used by soap and coffee merchants from Palestine in the 17th and 18th centuries, so it is also called the Soap Inn. The inn was demolished in 1960 to be rebuilt as a school, and only the gate remains. Above the gate is a stone carving of a pair of cups, because Emir Qawsun once served as the Sultan's cupbearer (saqi).

Qawsun was born on the Kipchak steppe under the rule of the Golden Horde and started out as a merchant. In 1320, Princess Tulunbay of the Golden Horde married the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt. Qawsun came to Cairo as part of her entourage and stayed in Cairo to sell leather goods. Qawsun was highly valued by the Sultan in Cairo and became his personal attendant. He then rose quickly through the ranks and married the Sultan's daughter. After the old Sultan died in 1341, Qawsun became the regent and held actual power over the Mamluk dynasty. However, he was defeated by political rivals a few months later and was killed in prison.





Continuing south along El-Gamaleya Street, you can see several more historical buildings.









Khanqah of Baybars II: 1310

On the east side of the middle section of El-Gamaleya Street stands the Khanqah of Baybars II, built in 1310. Baybars II was the 12th Sultan of the Mamluk dynasty and reigned for only one year, from 1309 to 1310. Baybars II served as vice-sultan from 1299 to 1309 and led the Mamluk Sultanate against the Ilkhanate in the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in Syria in 1303. This battle resulted in the total defeat of the Mongol army that had marched west into Syria. People say the Sultan led his captives from the Gate of Victory along El-Gamaleya Street into the old city of Cairo. Singers and dancers from all over came to celebrate, and the city was decorated with lights for days of festivities.



















The exquisite Islamic geometric patterns (Girih) on the gate of the Khanqah of Baybars II form complex designs through overlapping and interlacing.



It is very interesting that the threshold of the gate is made of stone blocks carved with ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, which is the first time I have ever seen this.



Bayt al-Suhaymi: 1648

Walking west from the Khanqah of Baybars II, you can see the Bayt al-Suhaymi on Darb al-Asfar Street. Built in 1648, it is the best-preserved private residence from the Ottoman period in old Cairo and is now open as a tourist site.

This residence is built around a courtyard (Sahn) with a small garden planted with palm trees in the center. You can see beautiful wooden lattice windows (Mashrabiya) in the courtyard. The south side of the mansion is the original 1648 structure, while the north side was expanded in 1797. It is now named after its last owner, Sheikh Muhammad Amin al-Suhaymi, who was a sheikh at Al-Azhar Mosque. In 1930, King Fuad I of Egypt provided funds to purchase the mansion and placed it under the management of the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Art Monuments.



















The ornate ceiling decorations of Bayt al-Suhaymi.



















The wood-carved furniture and colorful marble floors inside Bayt al-Suhaymi.



















Mosque-Sabil of Sulayman Agha al-Silahdar: 1839

Continuing west back to the main road of old Cairo, Al-Mu'izz Street, the first thing you see is the Mosque-Sabil of Sulayman Agha al-Silahdar, built in 1839. This fountain has a fancy Ottoman Baroque facade with floral patterns from the European Renaissance. The fountain is made of marble and was used to keep the water cool during the summer. Next to the fountain is a primary school (kuttab) that was once used to teach children how to read, write, and recite scripture. Here, we can also enter the huge underground water reservoir of the fountain, which is rarely seen in typical fountains.



















Aqmar Mosque: 1125-6

Walking south along Al-Muizz Street, we stop at the famous Fatimid-era Aqmar Mosque. The Aqmar Mosque was built in 1125-6 by order of the Fatimid vizier Al-Ma'mun al-Bata'ihi. It sits at the northeast corner of the former Eastern Fatimid Palace, right next to the palace grounds.

The Aqmar Mosque holds a groundbreaking place in Egyptian architectural history. It is the first mosque where the entrance is flush with the street rather than aligned with the qibla wall, making it the first mosque planned according to Cairo's street layout. It is also the first mosque to feature complex stone carvings. The facade of the Aqmar Mosque is very luxurious. Above the entrance is a large medallion surrounded by a grille, with the names of the Prophet and Ali in the center and verses written around them. This type of decoration is unique in Cairo.

At the top of the left facade, there are carvings of a door and a window. The window on the left symbolizes the ceremonial grille that the Fatimids took back from the palace of their rivals, the Abbasids in Baghdad, serving as a symbol of victory. Inside the window is a lamp and a six-pointed star, based on the Shia hadith: 'The stars are a promise to the world, and it will not be submerged.' Below the window, there is a carving of a plant growing out of a flower pot, which comes from the Prophet's reference to Hasan and Husayn as 'my two aromatic herbs in the world.' The door in the upper right corner comes from the famous Shia hadith: 'I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate.'

Because it was near the Fatimid palace, the Aqmar Mosque did not originally have a minaret. One was not added until the end of the 14th century by the Mamluk dynasty, and the cylindrical top was rebuilt during the Ottoman era.

In 1993, the Dawoodi Bohra branch of the Shia community carried out a large-scale renovation of the Aqmar Mosque. Most of the historical elements inside the main hall were not preserved, which drew criticism.



















Madrasa of Emir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar: 1407

Turn back into al-Gamaleya Street along the alley south of the Aqmar Mosque to see the Madrasa of Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar, built in 1407 by the Mamluk general Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar. Jamal al-Din built many structures in Cairo, and al-Gamaleya Street is named after him.

This is a classic cruciform madrasa structure with an open courtyard in the center and an iwan (arched hall) on each of the four sides, each used to teach one of the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The decoration inside the main hall is very ornate, as People say Jamal al-Din modeled it after Mamluk palace designs and invested a large amount of money and materials. Jamal al-Din was executed just four years after the mosque was completed. The Sultan wanted to demolish the site, but a judge (Qadi) stopped him, and in the end, only Jamal al-Din's name was removed.

After the Ottoman Empire conquered Istanbul in 1517, many marble slabs from the inner walls of the madrasa were taken to Istanbul. The building was damaged again in the 1992 earthquake and was not fully restored until 2002.



















Dhu al-Fiqar Fountain-Primary School (Sabil-Kuttab): 1673

Opposite the Madrasa of Amir Jamal al-Din al-Ustadar is the Ottoman-era Dhu al-Fiqar Sabil-Kuttab, built in 1673 by Dhu al-Fiqar Katkhuda Mustahfizan and his brother Muhammad. This Sabil-Kuttab consists of two prominent wooden awnings, and the caravanserai (wikala) behind it was once a center for the coffee trade in 18th-century Cairo.





Maq’ad Mamay al-Sayfi Palace: 1496

Continue south to the Maq’ad Mamay al-Sayfi Palace on Beet Al Qadi Street, built in 1496 by the Mamluk general Sayf al-Din Mamay ibn Khadad, who served as a Mamluk diplomat to the Ottoman Empire in the early 1490s.

During the Ottoman period, this place served as a high court and the residence of judges, so it is also called Bayt al-Qadi. In the late 19th century, Egypt's ruler Isma'il Pasha (reigned 1863-79) carried out urban renewal in Cairo, and most of the palace was demolished, leaving only a large house used for summer retreats. The house consists of an upper pavilion and a lower storage room. The lotus capitals of the pavilion are the only example in Islamic architecture in Cairo that directly uses architectural forms from the ancient Egyptian pharaonic era. The interior of the pavilion has complex decorations and calligraphy, but unfortunately, it was not open when we visited.







Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda Sabil-Kuttab: 1744

Walk south from the Aqmar Mosque to see the Sabil-Kuttab of Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda, a fountain-school built in 1744 during the Ottoman era. It is a landmark building on Al-Muizz Street, the main road in Old Cairo. During the Mamluk and Ottoman dynasties, these fountain-schools were very common in Cairo. The ground floor fountain (sabil) provided free drinking water to passersby, while the second floor school (kuttab) taught children how to read and write.

Although this fountain-school was built in the Mamluk style, it incorporates many Ottoman architectural elements. The builder, Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda, was a high-ranking Mamluk emir officer known for his noble lifestyle and patronage of the arts. He renovated or built 33 structures in Cairo.















Across from the Khanqah of Baybars II stands the Qitas Bey fountain-school (sabil-kuttab), built in 1630 during the Ottoman period. In the Mamluk and Ottoman eras, most fountain-schools in the old city of Egypt were built on street corners.





Bashtak Palace: 1334-1339.

Southeast of the Sabil-Kuttab of Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda is the Mamluk-era Bashtak Palace (Qasr Bashtak), built between 1334 and 1339 by the Mamluk emir and general Sayf al-Din Bashtak al-Nasiri. Bashtak was a powerful Mamluk emir who married the daughter of a Mamluk sultan and held important positions in the royal court. He chose a section of the former Fatimid eastern palace to build his own palace and stables, which became a model of Mamluk architecture.

Only a portion of the Bashtak Palace remains today, the most important part being the reception hall (qa'a). The hall features a wooden paneled ceiling, stained glass, and an inlaid marble fountain. The upper level has wooden lattice windows (mashrabiyya), all of which are typical architectural styles of the Mamluk period. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This Muslim travel guide China 2026 update keeps the original Yarkand travel notes intact while making the history easier for English readers to follow. It is useful for readers researching halal food in China, Chinese Muslim food, old mosques, and Silk Road Muslim heritage in Xinjiang.

I visited Yarkant in 2018 and recorded some images related to the Yarkent Khanate.

By the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Western Regions were united, with Yarkent being the largest—from the Xinjiang Illustrated Records (Xinjiang Tuzhi).

The Yarkent Khanate was a state established in 1514 by Sultan Said Khan, a descendant of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate royal family. With Yarkent (the city of Shache) as its capital, it ruled southern Xinjiang and surrounding areas for over a hundred years until it was incorporated into the Dzungar Khanate in 1680.

During the Yarkent Khanate's rule over southern Xinjiang, the Chagatai Mongols shifted from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one and integrated into the Uyghur people. The Uyghur people also gradually developed and formed into a modern ethnic group during this period. Culturally, the Yarkent Khanate period saw the appearance of famous historical works like the History of Rashid (Tarikh-i-Rashidi) and the Chronicles, and the Twelve Muqam was also finalized during this time.

The name Yarkent Khanate is actually a term used by modern scholars. Earlier local documents used the Persian word Moghuliye, which means Mongol State. Around the same time, Sultan Said Khan's cousin Babur established a state in northern India and also used the term Moghul for himself. To distinguish between them, Chinese generally translates them as Mengwu'er and Mowuo'er respectively.



A map of the Yarkent Khanate's territory drawn by SY.

1. A Bumpy Road of Exile

In the second half of the 15th century, the Eastern Chagatai Khanate split again. The founder of the Yarkent Khanate, Sultan Said Khan, was the third son of Ahmad Alaq, the ruler of Uyghurstan (the area around modern-day Turpan) in the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate.

1. The First Exile

Sultan Said Khan was born in Turpan in 1487. At age 14 (in 1501), he followed his father to support his uncle, Mahmud Khan, the ruler of the western part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, against the Uzbek tribal leader Muhammad Shaybani. The Eastern Chagatai coalition was defeated by Muhammad Shaybani in Tashkent. Sultan Said Khan was shot in the thigh and fell on the battlefield, after which he was imprisoned by the Eastern Chagatai rebels. At the same time, Sultan Said Khan's cousin Babur, the future founder of the Mughal Empire, was also in the coalition. After his defeat, he crossed the mountains and headed to Afghanistan.

The following year, Muhammad Shaybani attacked the Fergana Valley again and released Sultan Said Khan. Muhammad Shaybani felt sympathy for Sultan Said Khan, took him along on military campaigns, and later left him in the city of Samarkand. While Muhammad Shaybani was campaigning in Khwarezm, Sultan Said Khan escaped from Samarkand and made his way back to his uncle Mahmud Khan's camp.

Sultan Said Khan's father died of grief shortly after the defeat, so Sultan Said Khan stayed to serve in his uncle's court. Soon, Sultan Said Khan could not stand his uncle's neglect of state affairs, so he fled the court again to join his younger brother, Khalil Sultan.



A portrait of Muhammad Shaybani drawn around 1507, held by the Uzbekistan Academy of Arts.

2. The Second Exile

Starting in 1504, the 17-year-old Sultan Said Khan and his brother fought against their uncle several times, finally defeating him in 1508. That same year, Sultan Said Khan's older brother, Mansur Khan, the ruler of the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate, sent troops from Turpan. The two sides fought a decisive battle in Almaty. After his defeat, Sultan Said Khan set out on the road of exile once again.

Said Khan and a few loyal followers started a thrilling escape. They faced betrayal, robbery, and broken promises before finally disguising themselves to cross the Pamir Mountains. After many hardships, they reached Kabul, Afghanistan, to join his cousin Babur. Said Khan and Babur shared a deep bond, and Said Khan finally found a stable life in Afghanistan for two years.

3. Counterattacking Central Asia

In 1510, Shaybani Khan was defeated and killed in a war against the Safavid dynasty of Iran. The following year, the leaders of all Uzbek tribes held a meeting in Samarkand and decided to kill all Chagatai Mongols in the Transoxiana region of Central Asia. The Chagatai Mongols in Transoxiana learned of this and rose up in rebellion. They sent a letter to Babur in Afghanistan asking for help, so Babur sent his cousin Said Khan to lead an army to their rescue.

In 1511, Said Khan arrived in Andijan, the center of the Chagatai Mongol resistance in the Fergana Valley, where he received a grand welcome. While Said Khan was fighting the Uzbek army, the ruler of the Kashgar Kingdom, Abu Bakr, took the chance to surround the city of Andijan. Said Khan quickly fought back. He faced Abu Bakr in a decisive battle outside Andijan and defeated the enemy despite being outnumbered. Soon after, Babur led his army to occupy Samarkand, forcing the Uzbek troops to withdraw from Andijan.

In 1512, the Uzbek army defeated Babur and recaptured Samarkand. Babur asked for help from the Safavid dynasty of Iran and Said Khan. Said Khan led his army from Andijan to help, but they were blocked on the way. After losing the battle, he had to retreat to Andijan. Soon, the joint forces of Babur and the Safavid dynasty were completely crushed by the Uzbek tribes, and Babur returned to Afghanistan once again.

II. Transoxiana or Southern Xinjiang?

In 1514, after stabilizing their hold on Transoxiana, the Uzbek army prepared to march into the Fergana Valley. After careful thought and discussion, Said Khan realized he could not withstand the Uzbek army's attack. He decided to cross the Tianshan Mountains to Yarkand to fight the easier target, Abu Bakr.

1. Abu Bakr's Yarkand

Let's go back to the 15th century. In 1432, the East Chagatai Khan, Vais Khan, passed away. The Dughlat tribe, which held the actual military power of the Khanate, fell into division. The noble Amirs supported Vais Khan's two sons, Esen Buqa and Yunus Khan (Said Khan's grandfather), and the East Chagatai Khanate split into two parts.

The main figure supporting Esen Buqa was the Dughlat noble Amir Abu Bakr. He defeated Yunus Khan's attacks and began ruling the western part of southern Xinjiang, including Kashgar, Yarkand, Yengisar, and Hotan, starting in the 1460s.

2. Azna Mosque

The Azna Mosque, built during Abu Bakr's rule of Yarkand (1465-1514), still stands in Yarkand today. This mosque has never been rebuilt by later generations and still keeps its original appearance, making it very precious.

The Azna Mosque belongs to the typical Persian-Turkic architectural style. Its design is very similar to the Bibi-Khanym Mosque of the 14th and 15th-century Timurid Empire and the Begampur Mosque of the Delhi Sultanate, though it is smaller in size.

The most unique feature of the Azna Mosque is its 52 domes on the roof. Unfortunately, the mosque is not open to the public, so you can only look at the exterior facade.













3. Qiletan Mazar

Another building said to have been built during the reign of Aba Bakr is the Qiletan Mazar. This mazar was originally an adobe structure, but it was rebuilt with brick and wood during the rule of Yaqub Beg (1865-1877), so it now reflects a 19th-century style. The current building has a mosque on the east side and the mazar on the west side. Because there are seven tombs inside the mazar, it is also called the "Mazar of the Seven Muhammads."













III. Founding the Yarkand Khanate

In the spring of 1514, Sultan Said Khan led his army over the Tianshan Mountains and arrived in Kashgar via the Torugart Pass. At that time, Aba Bakr was recruiting soldiers in Yarkand city. Sultan Said Khan fought a fierce battle outside the city against the Kashgar garrison and defeated them. The enemy closed the gates and refused to come out, so Sultan Said Khan could not take the city and turned to attack Yengisar city instead. Sultan Said Khan besieged Yengisar for two months and finally captured it after six days of intense fighting.

Hearing that Yengisar had fallen, the Kashgar garrison abandoned the city and fled, so Sultan Said Khan marched directly toward Yarkand. When Aba Bakr heard this, he abandoned the city and fled to Hotan, and soon after, Sultan Said Khan entered Yarkand city. On September 3, 1514, Sultan Said Khan officially ascended the throne and established the Yarkand Khanate.

1. Restoring Order

In 1516, Sultan Said Khan reconciled with his older brother, Mansur Khan, the ruler of the eastern part of the Eastern Chagatai Khanate. He agreed to mention Mansur's name during the khutbah (sermon) and to mint coins bearing Mansur's name. Southern Xinjiang welcomed long-lost peace and order that year. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes it this way:

The reconciliation of these two brothers resulted in safety and prosperity for the residents, such that anyone could travel alone between Hami in China and the Fergana region without needing provisions or fearing robbery.

2. Palace Ruins

Today in the old city of Yarkand (Shache), there is a site called "Ordakul," which means "palace pond." This is very likely the location of the Yarkand Khanate's royal palace. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi describes Yarkand city during the early period of the Yarkand Khanate like this:

They diverted rivers into the city and built gardens... The main roads people walked on were tree-lined paths of white poplar. So when people walked around the city, they could spend half their journey under the shade of these trees, and most of the tree-lined paths had water channels on both sides.

Ordakul





Ordakule Mosque





3. Jiaman Mosque

To the west of Ordakule is Jiaman Mosque. Jiaman is also translated as Jumu'ah, which refers to the weekly Friday congregational prayer. This is the most important prayer of the week for Muslims and is usually held at the largest mosque in a community.

Jiaman Mosque was reportedly first built by Sultan Said Khan and later expanded during the reign of Abdullah Khan (1638–1669). The mosque gates are locked tight outside of prayer times, and the uncle who looks after the place said he does not have a key either.

























4. Settled or Nomadic?

After settling down in the oases of southern Xinjiang, many Chagatai Mongols began to complain about city life and missed the nomadic life on the grasslands of their homeland, Moghulistan, more and more. the small pastures in the southern Xinjiang oases could not support the needs of the Mongol army. In 1522, Sultan Said Khan sent his son, Abdurashid Khan, to lead troops into Moghulistan, where they occupied the Kyrgyz people living there.

In 1526, the Kazakhs entered Moghulistan and joined forces with the Kyrgyz, reaching a total of over 200,000 people. Sultan Said Khan realized his strength was not enough to fight them, so he had to order all the Chagatai Mongols to return to southern Xinjiang. The Chagatai Mongols' five-year attempt to return to their homeland for a nomadic life ended in failure.

5. The Death of Sultan Said Khan

After the failure in the north, Sultan Said turned to attack the south. In 1529, Sultan Said Khan raided the Badakhshan region, which sat between the Yarkent Khanate and the Mughal Empire. This raid caused conflict between Sultan Said Khan and his cousin, Emperor Babur. Emperor Babur wrote a letter to Sultan Said Khan warning him that if he continued, "you will know the rest for yourself."

In 1532, Sultan Said Khan personally led his army south to prepare for an expedition to Lhasa. While crossing the Karakoram Mountains, Sultan Said Khan suffered from severe altitude sickness and lost his strength. In 1533, he decided to return to Yarkent to recover, but he died from altitude sickness while crossing the Karakoram Mountains again.

After Sultan Said Khan died in 1533, his son, Abdurashid Khan, succeeded him. Abdurashid Khan built a mausoleum for his father at the west gate of Yarkent city. Later, this place also became the royal tomb for the Yarkent Khanate.

The current mausoleum of Sultan Said Khan was rebuilt in 1997.























The Altun Mosque (Altun Qingzhensi) next to the royal tombs was also built in 1533, though its current appearance dates to renovations in 1735. The Altun Mosque is currently closed to visitors.





4. Yarkant and Muqam

During the reign of Rashid Khan, foreign wars decreased significantly while the success rate of those fought increased. The national situation stabilized, and social, economic, and cultural life began to recover.

According to the History of Musicians (Tavārikh-i mūsīqiyyūn) written in 1853 by the Khotan scholar Mulla Ismatulla Mujizi, Queen Amannisa Khan and the chief court musician Kidirhan organized a group of talented musicians, singers, and poets during Rashid Khan's reign to collect and organize Muqam music from various regions. This effort resulted in the compilation of 16 Muqam suites, including one set each processed by Amannisa Khan and Kidirhan.

During the Yarkant Khanate, Muqam existed only in the form of the grand suite known as Qong Neghma. In 1879, musicians from Kashgar and Yarkant reorganized the Muqam again, adding folk narrative poems called Dastan and song-and-dance performances known as Mexirep, which made the Muqam structure much larger. In the 1950s, the Xinjiang Military District Cultural Department recorded the complete Twelve Muqam as performed by the master Turdi Akhun. After editing and compilation, the musical scores were officially published in 1960, finalizing the form of the Twelve Muqam.

A new tomb for Amannisa Khan was built in the 1990s at the entrance to the Yarkant Royal Tombs.







A statue of Amannisa Khan in the park.



The tomb of Kidirhan is located within the Yarkant Royal Tombs.











I am grateful to Mr. Ilham, director of the Yarkant Muqam Heritage Center, for this trip to Yarkant and for letting us enjoy performances by the masters of the Yarkant Twelve Muqam.













5. The Prosperous Chamber of Commerce

Between 1603 and 1604, the Portuguese Jesuit missionary Bento de Góis visited the city of Yarkant. In the book 'China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matthew Ricci,' Bento de Góis's travel records note that because merchants gathered there frequently to sell a wide variety of goods, Yarkant became the capital of the Kashgar Kingdom (Yarkant Khanate) and a major commercial hub. Caravans from Kabul would disband here to form new ones heading toward Cathay.

At that time, there were two main international trade routes passing through Yarkant, forming a T-shape:

The east-west route connected Central Asia with the Chinese heartland: Bukhara—Samarkand—Kashgar—Yarkant—Aksu—Kuqa—Turpan—Hami—Suzhou (Jiuquan).

The north-south route connected Xinjiang with India: Yarkant—Kashgar—Pamir—Kabul—Lahore—Delhi.

The Yarkant Bazaar today.











6. The Center of the Black Mountain Sect—Altun Mazar

1. The Black Mountain Sect controls the Yarkant Khanate.

The reigns of the first three rulers of the Yarkant Khanate—Sultan Said Khan (1514-1533), Abdurashid Khan (1533-1560), and Abdul Karim Khan (1560-1591)—are known as the 'Golden Age' of the Yarkant Khanate, a time when the monarchs were diligent and focused on economic and cultural development.

During the reign of the fourth ruler, Muhammad Khan (1591-1610), the Khoja family of the Black Mountain faction (Qara Taghliq) of the Naqshbandi Sufi order, which rose in the Transoxiana region, began to hold real power. This marked the decline of the Yarkand Khanate.

In 1596, Khoja Muhammad Ishaq Wali of the Black Mountain faction sent his son, Khoja Shadi, to Yarkand to become Muhammad Khan's mentor. From then on, Yarkand became the center of the Black Mountain faction, and the Yarkand Royal Mausoleum, known as Altun Mazar, became the burial place for the Black Mountain Khojas.

2. The White Mountain faction defeats the Black Mountain faction

In the 1630s, Khoja Muhammad Yusuf of the White Mountain faction (Aq Taghliq), another branch of the Naqshbandi order, arrived in Kashgar. He used Kashgar as a base to oppose the rule of the Black Mountain faction, plunging the Yarkand Khanate into conflict between the two groups.

In 1680, Afaq Khoja of the White Mountain faction led the army of Galdan of the Dzungar Khanate to capture Yarkand. Khoja Abdullah of the Black Mountain faction fled to India, and Yarkand fell into the hands of the White Mountain faction.

However, shortly after Afaq Khoja died in 1694, the White Mountain faction fell into internal strife. In 1697, Galdan was defeated by the Qing army and committed suicide. Afterward, the Dzungar Khanate could no longer control southern Xinjiang, and the exiled Black Mountain Khoja, Khoja Daniyal, returned to Yarkand.

3. The Black Mountain faction under the Dzungar Khanate

In 1713, the Dzungar Khanate, having regained its strength, marched south to attack Yarkand. Khoja Daniyal surrendered without a fight and was taken to Ili. Because he was relatively loyal to the Dzungar Khanate, Khoja Daniyal was appointed by them in 1720 as the ruler of the four cities: Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, and Hotan. After Khoja Daniyal died in 1730, he was buried in Altun Mazar.

After Khoja Daniyal's death, the Dzungar Khan Galdan Tseren divided power by giving Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, and Hotan to each of Khoja Daniyal's four sons. Khoja Chagan ruled Yarkand.

After Galdan Tseren died in 1745, the Dzungar Khanate fell into intense infighting. Khoja Yusuf, the Black Mountain leader ruling Kashgar, broke away from Dzungar rule in 1754 and unified the entire southern Xinjiang region.

4. The fall of the Black Mountain faction.

In 1755, the Qing dynasty captured Ili. The White Mountain Khoja brothers, who had been held in Ili by the Dzungar Khanate, surrendered to the Qing. The Qing sent the elder Khoja, Khoja Burhan-ud-din, to lead an army into southern Xinjiang. He occupied most of the region, leaving the Black Mountain faction with only the isolated city of Yarkand. After fierce fighting, betrayals, wavering loyalties, and massacres, Yarkand was finally captured. The entire Black Mountain Khoja family was killed, and the faction exited the stage of history.

Today's Altun Mazar is the site of the former mausoleum of the Black Mountain Khojas.











Lecture hall







Scripture recitation room













The historical records in this article are mainly compiled from three books: A Brief History of the Islamic Khanates in Xinjiang, An Outline of the History of the Yarkand Khanate, and A History of Islam in China's Xinjiang Region. Additionally, one may refer to Ancient City of Yarkand and Map of Ancient Architecture in Xinjiang. view all

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Summary: Muslim History Guide China: Linxia Gannan Xidaotang, Gongbei Mosques and Silk Road Faith is presented here as a clear English account for Muslim readers, starting with this scene: Before Eid al-Adha (Qurban Jie), I took my wife and father-in-law on a road trip starting from Xunhua. We passed through Linxia, Xiahe, and Hezuo, ending in Lintan County in Gannan. The scenery along the way was beautiful, even. It keeps the original names, food details, mosque details, photographs, and cultural context while focusing on Linxia Travel, Xidaotang, Muslim History.

Before Eid al-Adha (Qurban Jie), I took my wife and father-in-law on a road trip starting from Xunhua. We passed through Linxia, Xiahe, and Hezuo, ending in Lintan County in Gannan. The scenery along the way was beautiful, even better than the paid tourist spots we visited.

Gannan is part of the greater Tibetan region with an average altitude of 3,000 meters, and some places go over 3,500 meters. Some people get altitude sickness, so prepare before you leave. I suggest keeping a simple oxygen canister in the car; they cost a few dozen yuan and are good to have just in case.

Also, watch out for the sun. The UV rays and sunlight at high altitudes are very strong and can make it hard to keep your eyes open. There is a big temperature difference between morning and night, so wear long sleeves and don't forget your sunglasses and sunscreen.

Itinerary: Xunhua - Linxia - Xiahe - Sangke Grassland - Hezuo - Meiren Grassland - Yeliguan - Lintan - Xunhua

(Three days total)

The three of us drove one car from Xunhua and reached Linxia in about two hours. We stayed in Linxia for one day. On the second day at noon, we arrived in Xiahe County for lunch and Jumuah prayer. We passed through Sangke Grassland, went through Hezuo City in the afternoon, passed Meiren Grassland, and arrived at Yeliguan in the evening. We stayed another night in Yeliguan. On the third morning, we visited Yeliguan National Forest Park and reached Lintan County by noon. We visited Xidaotang and in the afternoon went to the Galutian Big House, ten kilometers from Lintan County, as the end of our trip. That night, we drove over four hours back to Xunhua. The whole trip took one tank of gas.

Most tourists start from Lanzhou, which is only a two-hour drive from Linxia, so their route is similar to ours. You could skip Lintan County and head south to the Zhagana scenic area. I heard the scenery there is nice, but friends in Linxia said there are few Hui Muslims there, so it is just for taking photos, and we decided not to go.

Day 1: Linxia



I visited Linxia in 2016 and toured the famous Eight Neighborhoods and Thirteen Alleys. The Eight Neighborhoods are: 1. Dasi Fang, 2. Qisi Fang, 3. Xisi Fang, 4. Beisi Fang, 5. Tiejia Si Fang, 6. Qianheyan Si Fang, 7. Laowang Si Fang, 8. Xinwang Si Fang.

The Thirteen Alleys are: 1. Daga Alley, 2. Xiaonan Alley, 3. Bakou Alley, 4. Bei Alley, 5. Shagale Alley, 6. Zhuanyuan Alley, 7. Danan Alley, 8. Renyi Alley, 9. Xi Alley, 10. Yongzheng Alley, 11. Tiejia Si Alley, 12. Wangsi Alley, 13. Shiqiao Alley.

I mainly came to see the mosques and gongbei (shrines). Nearby are Tiejia Mosque, Laohua Mosque, Xinhua Mosque, Laowang Mosque, Beisi Mosque, Xisi Mosque, Daqi Mosque, Chengjiao Mosque, Nanguan Grand Mosque, Qianheyan Mosque, Guo Gongbei, and Da Gongbei.



Guo Gongbei

There are two gongbei in Hongyuan Square in Linxia, both belonging to the Qadiriyya menhuan (Sufi order). One is Guo Gongbei and the other is Da Gongbei. They are right next to each other. The master of Guo Gongbei was named Chen Yiming (1646—1718). People called him Chen Baoguo because he once protected the Qing Emperor Kangxi and was granted the surname Chen. Legend says his original surname was Hu. Although he was Qadiriyya, he was not under the control of Da Gongbei. After he passed away, the Qing court ordered the construction of the gongbei. The master of the gongbei did not preach. The followers at Guo Gongbei used to wear slanted-collar robes for a long time, but later the Da Gongbei council decided they should change their style of dress.



Da Gongbei is the shrine of Qi Jingyi, the founder of the Qadiriyya order. It is called Da Gongbei because it was built larger than the shrines of other menhuan. I have visited several important Qadiriyya gongbei. Compared to the styles of other menhuan, the architecture of Qadiriyya gongbei has more classical Chinese features and looks very similar to Taoist temples.













Linxia: Accommodation



Baishun Zhongtian Banquet Hotel

We chose to stay at the Baishun Zhongtian Banquet Hotel. Accommodation in Linxia is quite cheap; you can find a great hotel for two or three hundred yuan. This hotel is halal, has a comfortable environment, is near the river, and the breakfast is delicious.





Before arriving in Linxia, I posted on WeChat asking where to eat. I got dozens of replies, and no one recommended the same place twice. People suggested Dongxiang hand-grabbed lamb (shouzhuar), steamed buns (baozi), river-side noodle slices (heyan mianpian), Muqing Manor, sausage-stuffed intestines (fazi mianchang), Yinxing Restaurant, Maogou boiled chicken, and more. I didn't know what to do, so Brother Ma from Linxia decided for me and took me to the very famous farmhouse restaurants in Zheqiaowan.



Zheqiaowan is a place name. The local farmhouse-style restaurants are very popular, and they say you can't go wrong with any of them. It turns out the people in Linxia really know how to cook. Many of the noodle masters in the restaurants in neighboring Lanzhou are from Linxia, so noodle dishes are one of the specialties here.



The farmhouse restaurants are quite large and serve big portions. I suggest that if you are eating with a group, you can order one dish less than the number of people. For three people, two dishes are enough. Ordering too much is wasteful. We were four people and ordered five dishes, but we couldn't finish them and ended up packing the leftovers to go.



Three-treasure tea (sanpaotai)



Pan-fried potatoes with lamb chops (kang yangyu yangpai)



Hand-torn flatbread (shousi bing)



Chive buns (jiucai baozi)



Stir-stir-fried meat with vermicelli (fentiao chaorou)

Day 2: Xiahe County



The drive from Linxia to Xiahe takes over two hours. Xiahe is famous for the Tibetan Buddhist Labrang Monastery, but we only visited the Labrang Mosque. The two are not far apart, and since it was Jumu'ah, we were able to attend the congregational prayer there.



The Labrang Mosque is also called the Xiahe Mosque. It is the only mosque in the area, but it is quite large and its architectural style incorporates elements of Tibetan design.



The Labrang Mosque was founded in 1854. Before building it, they had to get permission from the Labrang Monastery. At first, the mosque was just a temporary place for namaz, but as the number of local Hui Muslims grew, the mosque needed to expand. However, the Tibetans would not allow a large-scale construction, so they could only expand it slightly.

By 1936 (the 25th year of the Republic of China), a large number of refugees from Hezhou had flooded into Labrang following the Ma Zhongying incident of 1928. The mosque was clearly too small, so school board member Ma Letian and others held several talks with Huang Zhengqing, the commander of the Labrang Tibetan security forces (and brother of the 5th Jamyang), and finally secured a promise that they could fully expand the mosque without interference.

The newly built mosque covered a total area of 639 square meters. It featured a main prayer hall with a brick-and-wood structure consisting of five main rooms and three side rooms, a three-story pavilion-style minaret, 24 rooms for the east, north, and south wings, and 12 rooms for storage and bathing facilities. That was before the Reform and Opening-up period, though; the current building dates back to 1981.









Once you reach Xiahe, you have entered the greater Tibetan region, so you can see the Tibetan style in the local residential architecture.





Although Xiahe County is a Tibetan area, there are halal restaurants everywhere. We chose a large restaurant called Jiusheng. This place does not sell alcohol and also offers lodging, so friends who need a place to stay can consider booking a room here. The dining area at Jiusheng is very spacious, and the dishes have a strong local character. I ordered a dish called Kekexili, which is made with wheat kernels. It was delicious, but the portion was huge. I didn't finish it, so I packed it up and ate the rest as a snack on the road.





Stir-fried beef with tiger skin peppers (hupi lazi shao niurou)



Rustic farmhouse-style dishes (fengwei nongjia cai)



Kekexili (a dish made with wheat kernels)

Leaving Xiahe County and heading south, our grassland road trip began. Along both sides of the road lies the endless Sangke Grassland. The Gannan region has many grasslands, and Sangke is the first large one we passed through.











Prayer flag tunnel (jingfan suidao)



Along the way, we saw some nice scenery by the road and stopped to take photos. Just as we were about to leave, a child and an elderly person, both dressed in Tibetan clothing, blocked us to demand money. Of course, I didn't pay because I had heard about this behavior before. I stepped on the gas, left them behind, and drove off. I suggest everyone take photos at public viewing platforms to avoid any unpleasant situations.



Hezuo City



Hezuo Grand Mosque

Hezuo Grand Mosque was first built in 1834. It now serves over 10,000 congregants, most of whom are followers of the Huasi menhuan, though others belong to different menhuan. The current building was constructed in 1995.













We stopped briefly in Hezuo to pray and rest before heading south. Along the way, we passed a sea of rapeseed flowers right next to the Hezuo highway. Against the backdrop of blue skies and white clouds, the golden flowers were truly beautiful.





Meiren Grassland



Meiren Grassland

The Meiren Grassland sits at an altitude of over 3,600 meters. It features the alpine meadow landscape unique to the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. I first thought the rounded mounds of grass were man-made, but after walking closer, I realized they formed naturally. This landscape forms in low-lying, poorly drained areas of the grassland where marshes develop, shaped by plants, soil, weathering, and freezing.





Prayer flag tunnel (jingfan suidao)

Be careful: while the prayer flag tunnels on the highway are beautiful, do not stop to take photos, as it is dangerous.



The figure in the distance is my father-in-law praying by the side of the road.



Yeliguan Town



Yelinguan Hotel

We arrived in Yeliguan Town that evening and checked into the Yelinguan Hotel. It is one of the better hotels in town, costing over 200 yuan. It is a halal hotel and serves halal breakfast. There are very few halal restaurants in Yeliguan, and there is not much to do in town, so I suggest considering other places to stay overnight.

Day 3: Yeliguan National Forest Park



A filming location for Journey to the West

You can drive into Yeliguan National Forest Park. Tickets are 78 yuan. If you do not have a car, you need to take the park's cable car. There is not much special scenery inside, though there are some farmed deer. To reach the top of the mountain, you need to take another cable car, which costs 20 yuan one way or 40 yuan round trip. If you do not want to pay, you have to hike up for over an hour.



When I was walking in the woods, I did not know it was a filming location for Journey to the West. It just felt familiar, like I had seen it on TV. When I visited Jiuzhaigou in March this year, I checked out one of the filming locations there. I did not expect the 1983 version of Journey to the West to have put so much effort into choosing its outdoor locations.



I do not think Yeliguan Forest Park offers good value for money. If you are struggling to choose between many Gannan attractions, I suggest skipping this one.



After driving for nearly two hours from Yeliguan, we arrived in Lintan County. The small county town in the distance in the photo is Lintan.



The first shop at the entrance of Lintan County is Mayongcheng Laochao. Laochao refers to stir-fried noodle slices (laochao mianpian). Lintan County is full of halal restaurants, and none of them sell alcohol.



Restaurants in the Northwest provide free tea. The server will bring a tea platter, and you can add whatever you like to your cup.



Stir-fried noodle slices (laochao mianpian)

The noodle slices come in a huge bowl; unless you are very hungry, you really cannot finish it. They also sell whole free-range chickens (tu ji) at a cheap price, and they taste great.



A plate of stir-fried free-range chicken pieces

There are a few large, prominent mosques in Lintan County, including the Upper Mosque (Qingzhen Shangsi) and the Grand Huasi Mosque (Qingzhen Huadasi).



Upper Mosque (Shangsi).

The Upper Mosque and the Hua Great Mosque (Hua Da Si) sit next to each other. Both were built in 1380. Records show that the Hui Muslims in Lintan originally came from Zhusi Lane in Nanjing. They were part of the Hui Muslim group that followed Mu Ying on his western military campaign during the Ming Dynasty's Hongwu era. The Ming History records that the construction of the mosque was suggested by the Marquis of Xiping, Mu Ying, and approved by the Ming court. It was modeled after the Huajue Mosque in Chang'an and covers an area of 15 mu. To encourage the soldiers stationed in the area, the Ming court often awarded them plaques to honor their service.







The Lintan County Hua Great Mosque was first built in 1380 (the 13th year of the Hongwu era of the Ming Dynasty). By the early 21st century, it had a history of over 600 years. The Taozhou Prefecture Gazetteer records: 'Mu Ying, the Ming General who conquered the West, arrived in 1380 (the 13th year of Hongwu). The eighteen tribes of Taozhou and three deputy envoys rebelled and occupied the Nalin Seven Stations area. Following the Emperor's orders, Mu Ying led his army to the old city. The rebels fled, but he pursued and captured the three deputy envoys. He built a city at Donglong Mountain and stationed troops there. He returned his army in the sixth month and was named Marquis of Xiping for his achievements.' Historical records state: 'The old Taozhou mosque was in the old city and was renovated in the Dingwei year of the Ming Hongwu era.' At that time, Taozhou only had the Gedimu tradition, but now it follows the Huasi menhuan. The current building was designed by the Architectural Design and Research Institute of Tongji University and was completed in 2019.









Western Hall (Xidaotang) Mosque.

The Western Hall was the main focus of my trip. It originated in Lintan County, Gansu Province. Its founder, Ma Qixi, was skilled at teaching in Chinese. He used Chinese-language classics like Liu Jielian's 'The Nature of Islam' (Tianfang Xingli), 'The Rites of Islam' (Tianfang Dianli), and 'The True Record of the Prophet of Islam' (Tianfang Zhisheng Shilu) for his teachings, which is why it is called the 'Chinese School'.

The founder of the Huasi menhuan, Ma Laichi, spread the teachings of the Khufiyya order. Lintan initially accepted the Khufiyya. When the Huasi menhuan reached the third generation leader Ma Guangzong (known as Beichuan Taiye), his student Ma Baozhen left the Huasi menhuan. He adopted the teachings of the Ishan school from Shache, Xinjiang, and started his own group in Beizhuang, Dongxiang, which became known as the Beizhuang menhuan. Ma Baozhen's student, Min Shangli, served as the 'muleti' (religious leader) for the Beizhuang group stationed in the old city. After Min Shangli passed away, he was buried at the Dazigou gongbei (shrine). His son, Min Yonglu, succeeded him as the 'muleti' in Lintan. After Min Yonglu passed away, he was also buried at the Dazigou gongbei. His son, Min Shida, succeeded him. Min Shida only had two daughters. One daughter married Ma Yuan, who had two sons. One of them was Ma Qixi, which is why Ma Qixi originally belonged to the Beizhuang menhuan.



Ma Qixi was smart and loved to learn. He did well in school from a young age and passed the imperial exam to become a scholar (xiucai). He opened a private school in his hometown of Xifeng Mountain. In 1898, Ma Qixi began teaching in a scripture hall at the Beizhuang gongbei. One faction of the Beizhuang menhuan insisted that people should take off their shoes when performing namaz, while the other faction believed it was not necessary. The Beizhuang 'muleti' Min Yonglu said: 'It is best to take them off, but not taking them off does not violate religious rules.' Ma Qixi thought Min Yonglu was being indecisive and should clearly state whether shoes should be removed or not. This led to a disagreement, and Ma Qixi left the Beizhuang group to start his own.



Ma Qixi had a rational mindset. He strongly advocated for changing old customs, such as cutting off men's long braids, opposing foot-binding for women, and encouraging girls to go to school. In terms of religion, he only considered the 'Five Pillars of Islam' as the complete practice, whereas the Beizhuang menhuan also required the morning and evening recitation of 'dhikr' and quiet meditation.

Ma Qixi realized that to develop education, they needed an economic foundation. Therefore, the Western Hall placed great importance on business and farming. The followers of the Western Hall treated the hall as their home and lived a collective life, creating the prototype of the Western Hall 'Ummah' family.



The Western Hall founded the Lintan Puci Primary School. All children in the hall over the age of 7 were enrolled for free, and they also accepted over 100 children from other local ethnic groups. To solve the problem of girls' education, the Western Hall founded the Lintan Old City Private Qixi Girls' School in 1943, which was free for all girls regardless of their ethnicity.



The Gansu Hui Muslim general Ma Anliang was a follower of the Huasi menhuan. He wanted to use Ma Qixi to attack the Beizhuang menhuan, but Ma Qixi refused, and the two parted on bad terms.

In 1914, Ma Anliang sent his subordinate Zhang Shunyuan to execute Ma Qixi, claiming he had 'colluded with Bai Lang to kill innocent Hui and Han people in the old city.' After Ma Qixi was killed, Ding Quangong succeeded him. The Western Hall did not use a hereditary system; the leader was chosen by public vote and served for life.

In 1917, Ding Quangong and his group were passing through Lintao to visit the grave of the martyred student Ma Wanzhang. They were surrounded by Ma Ying, a local commander appointed by Ma Anliang. Ding Quangong was killed, and Ma Mingren succeeded him as the third leader.

In 1919, Ma Anliang was promoted to Governor of Gansu. While traveling to take up his post, he fell ill at Suonanba in Dongxiang, returned home, and passed away.



The prayer hall of Xidaotang, which looks like the Temple of Heaven.

Ma Mingren mentored Ding Zhengxi. Ding graduated from the Chinese Department of Peking University in 1929, becoming the first university student in Xidaotang history. After graduation, he returned to Xidaotang to handle diplomatic affairs and later served as the magistrate of Hezheng County.



In Guzhan Town, about 10 kilometers from Lintan County, stands the Galutian Big House. It is the only one remaining of the 13 large houses built by Xidaotang and is now a national-level cultural heritage site.



The Galutian Big House is a Tibetan-style building. A key feature of Tibetan architecture is that you cannot see the wood from the outside or the earth from the inside. The house was built to meet the needs of the collective life of the Uma.



There are long benches in front of the main hall for elders to study scriptures and discuss matters, serving as a place for democratic consultation.



Every Xidaotang member living here has their food, clothing, housing, transportation, family education, weddings, funerals, and support provided by the collective.



The Xidaotang constitution states regarding economic management: all income and expenses from collective farming, commerce, forestry, animal husbandry, and sideline businesses are managed, operated, and distributed centrally. The organization has one manager and one deputy manager.



Trade with Tibetan areas was the foundation of Xidaotang's economic development, so the group placed great importance on its relationship with Tibetan people. Most Xidaotang members could speak Tibetan, and the Tibetan people called them 'Qusuoma,' meaning 'new religious friends'. After the Xidaotang elders Ma Mingren and Min Zhidao passed away, hundreds of Tibetan people came to attend their funerals.



The Sixth Jamyang Living Buddha of Labrang Monastery once visited Xidaotang and placed a white silk scarf (hada) on the grave of Elder Ma Qixi, who is buried at the foot of Xifeng Mountain.



Xidaotang is a model for the Sinicization of Islam. To adapt to the social environment of the time, it took many pioneering steps, especially in prioritizing education, particularly for women. This provided continuous momentum for the overall growth of Xidaotang and is worth learning from by other groups.



Ending our trip to Lintan, we drove for four hours that afternoon to return to Xunhua to prepare for Eid al-Adha (Guerbang Jie). view all

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Summary: This Changping article records the annual gathering at Sheikh Baba’s tomb in Heying, Beijing, including the saint’s story, Hui Muslim visitors, dua, and community remembrance.

Yesterday was the 24th day of the third lunar month, the date of the annual memorial gathering (gan'ermaili) at the tomb of the saintly elder Baha Haji Sheikh Baba in Heying, Changping, Beijing. On this day, friends (dost) from Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, and across Beijing gathered here to remember the saint, learn about his life, and reflect on his great virtues and lasting influence on future generations.

The saint came to China from Medina during the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty to offer advice to the capital, where he was highly respected by the Ming Emperor Taizu. He refused the official titles offered to him, asking only to travel and teach the faith to the local people. The saint traveled everywhere on a white camel, living with strict discipline and high moral character, winning people over through his virtuous deeds. The saint eventually arrived in Heying, Changping, where he taught, preached, and performed many acts of kindness before passing away and being buried there. For hundreds of years, local villagers have told the story of how the saint killed a python on Mangshan Mountain to protect the people, a righteous act that brought blessings to the area and earned him lasting fame.

We are here to learn from the saint's indifference to fame and wealth, his humility, his integrity, and his lack of interest in vanity. We learn from the saint's kindness and love, his dedication to teaching others, his devotion to Allah, his love for people, and his friendly relations with neighbors. We learn from the saint's perseverance in spreading the true path, his steadfast faith, and his service to the community. May we work together with one heart to bring the saint's virtues into our daily lives, respect education, help those in need, live in harmony, and ensure the light of the true path continues forever. view all

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Summary: Ayutthaya is home to one of Thailand's oldest Muslim communities, shaped by Persian, Malay, Indian, and local Thai Muslim histories. This article keeps the source's mosque names, old settlement details, palace-era background, food notes, and community observations in clear English.

When we think of Muslim communities in Thailand, we first think of the Malays in the south, the Yunnanese Hui Muslims in the north, and the diverse, integrated mosque neighborhoods in Bangkok. In fact, Muslim communities in Ayutthaya began to thrive as early as 1351, when the city became the capital of Thailand. Although Ayutthaya lost its status as the capital after the Thai capital moved in 1767, the mosque neighborhood structure here has been passed down to this day.

Historically, there were six mosque neighborhoods in Ayutthaya that date back to the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351-1767):

Thung Khaek / Kudi Chao Sen Mosque: Persian Shia.

Khaek Pae Mosque: Persian Shia.

Nurul Yaman Mosque: Persian Shia (formerly), Malay Sunni (later).

Takia Yokin Mosque: Indian Sunni (Qadiriyya Sufi order).

Surau Nai Klong Mosque: Cham Sunni.

Kudi Chofa Mosque: Makassar and Malay Sunni.

The original site of Kudi Chao Sen Mosque was in the southern part of the Ayutthaya city walls, founded in the early 17th century by Sheikh Ahmad, a Persian who came from Qom, Iran. During the 17th and 18th centuries, this was a residential area for Persian and Indian descendants in Ayutthaya. After Ayutthaya fell in 1767, most residents moved south to Thonburi with the Thai king, and the mosque neighborhood dissolved. Today, there is a rebuilt gongbei (shrine) for Sheikh Ahmad here. For details, see 'The Persian Sheikh Gongbei in Ayutthaya, Thailand'.



Khaek Pae Mosque is located on the bank where the Chao Phraya River and the Pa Sak River meet. Persian merchants once lived on boats here, which locals called the 'floating village'. After Ayutthaya fell in 1767, most residents moved south to Thonburi with the Thai king, and the mosque neighborhood dissolved. Today, there are two mosque neighborhoods in Bangkok established by descendants of Ayutthaya's Persians. See 'Experiencing the Persian Shia Festival Atmosphere in Bangkok, Thailand' and 'Visiting Shia Communities in Bangkok'.

Nurul Yamal Mosque is located in the northern suburbs of the old city of Ayutthaya, near where the Ayutthaya Kingdom built an elephant kraal in 1580. According to the travelogue 'Safine-ye Solaymani' (The Ship of Suleiman) written by the Persian Safavid mission sent to Ayutthaya in 1685, there were over a hundred Persian merchants engaged in the lucrative elephant trade at the elephant kraal at that time. After Ayutthaya fell in 1767, most residents moved south to Thonburi with the Thai king, and the mosque neighborhood dissolved.

After the Rattanakosin Kingdom was established in Bangkok in 1782, Thailand continued to invade the Malay Sultanate of Pattani in the south. In 1786, Thailand dealt a devastating blow to the Pattani Sultanate. Afterward, a large number of Pattani Malays were relocated to central Thailand, and some settled at the old site of the Nurul Yamal mosque neighborhood and rebuilt the Nurul Yamal Mosque.

Nurul Yamal Mosque was originally a wooden structure, but it was later rebuilt into a brick and stone structure under the guidance of a Chinese person. King Rama V of Thailand (reigned 1868-1910) visited here, gifted the mosque a green lantern, and bestowed the name Nurul Yamal Mosque.

We performed Jumu'ah at Nurul Yamal Mosque, where the imam gave the khutbah (wa'z) in Thai.



















Takia Yokin Mosque is located on the banks of the Chao Phraya River in the southern suburbs of Ayutthaya. It was originally a Buddhist mosque, but it was rebuilt in the mid-16th century after the mosque's abbot, Diwan Chao, was guided by the Sufi sheikh Tok Takia of the Qadiriyya menhuan. The mosque preserves a traditional Thai-style imam's prayer pavilion and a minbar pulpit, both of which are beautifully crafted. Although the founder, Sheikh Tok Takia, was of Indian descent, the local community members are now primarily Malay. See "Visiting the Two Great Qadiriyya Gongbei of Thailand."

In the 15th century, Arab, Persian, and Indian merchants sailing east along the Indian Ocean monsoon winds preferred the powerful Malacca Sultanate as their trading hub. However, after the Portuguese conquered Malacca in 1511, trade was heavily restricted. Many Arab, Persian, and Indian merchants began moving to the Siamese capital of Ayutthaya to do business, and Siam welcomed them. At that time, a large number of merchant ships gathered along the banks of the Chao Phraya River south of Ayutthaya. These merchants would anchor their ships outside the city and then transport their goods into the city for sale. The riverbank where Takia Yokin Mosque is located was an important anchorage for these ships, and it later developed into an important mosque community.











Surau Nai Klong Mosque was founded by Cham people from Cambodia and Vietnam. The Cham community in Ayutthaya is spread along both banks of the Chao Phraya River south of the old city. With a history of over 600 years, it is the oldest and longest-standing Muslim community in Thailand.

Champa (Champa) was a country established by the Cham people (Chams) in southern Vietnam in 192 AD. Because their land was narrow and fragmented, Champa focused on maritime trade and became an important trading port on the Maritime Silk Road during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Whether they were Chinese merchant ships departing from Guangzhou and Quanzhou or Arab and Persian merchant ships from the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, all chose to stop in Champa.

After Ayutthaya became the capital of Thailand in 1350, Cham merchants came to trade and established a Cham village (Pata Ku Cham) on the south bank of the Chao Phraya River. According to the Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya: Luang Prasoet Version, in 1409, the Thai King Ram Racha ordered the arrest of the minister Okya Mahasena, who successfully crossed the river and fled to the Cham village. He later supported the king's cousin, Nakarintratiraj, in overthrowing Ram Racha. After the new king ascended the throne, he exiled the old king to live in the Cham village.

After Vietnam broke free from Mongol control in the 14th century, it began moving south to invade Champa. In 1471, the Champa capital of Vijaya (Vijaya) was captured, and a large number of Cham royalty and civilians fled to Cambodia for refuge. These Cham people in Cambodia united with the Malays who had settled there earlier, forming a military alliance in the 16th century.

After the 16th century, the residential area of the Cham people in Ayutthaya expanded from the Cham village to both banks of the Chao Phraya River, and the nearby Cham canal port market became one of the four major floating markets in Ayutthaya. to selling goods, the Cham people in Ayutthaya also made a living by weaving straw mats and growing rice.

The Cambodian Cham military corps (Krom As-Cham) began to be employed by the Thai Ayutthaya Dynasty in the early 17th century. They were highly praised by the Siamese royal family for their superb shipbuilding skills and naval combat prowess. These Cham warriors were granted the honor of serving as rowers for the royal barges during Thai royal ceremonies.

After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, many Cham people moved south near Bangkok, as recorded in the Complete Collection of Bangkok Mosques: The Five Cham Quarters. However, many Cham people still remained in Ayutthaya. Following the arrival of Pattani Malays at the end of the 18th century, this area is now a place where Cham and Malay people live together.



















The original Surau Nai Klong mosque in Champa Village was gradually abandoned after the 19th century. Today, there are three mosques here: Aliyin Nuroi, Madinah Tusslihat, and Islam Vattana. I visited the first two on this trip.



















Next to the Cham community is the Islam Vattana cemetery. The most prominent building inside is a tomb for a Persian Shia sage built in the 18th century. It has now become a gongbei for local Sunni followers, which is a very interesting cultural phenomenon.

The owner of the gongbei was named Chen. He served as the Chula Rachamontri, the leader of the Thai Muslim community, during the reign of King Ekkathat (1758-1767) and was the last leader of the Muslim community during the Ayutthaya Kingdom. Chen was a descendant of the Sheikh Ahmad family, the most important Persian Shia family in Thailand. His family held a monopoly on Thai trade heading west to India, Persia, Arabia, and Europe, and they held the position of Muslim community leader by heredity. Chen's father, Jai, was a court attendant for King Narai. During the reign of King Borommakot (1733-1758), he was promoted to the general rank of Chao Phraya Phet Pichai and became the commander of the Cham and Japanese regiments. In 1750, Chen's father followed the Thai king and converted to Buddhism, but Chen held fast to his faith. He continued to serve as the leader of the Muslim community while also serving as the head of the Right Harbor, Chao Kromma Tha Khwa, responsible for managing Thailand's western trade.

After Ayutthaya fell in 1767, Chen did not follow the Thai king south to Thonburi. Instead, he stayed in his ancestral home in Ayutthaya, where he eventually passed away. His ancestral home is right next to the Cham Canal south of the city, adjacent to the Cham community. His grave is also here, and it has become an important gongbei for sages in Ayutthaya.

In 1797, Chen's son, Konkaew, inherited the titles of Muslim community leader and head of the Right Harbor in Thonburi. Another son, Akayi, built the Shia hall Kudi Charoenphat, which still stands today.



















Some graves in the Vattana cemetery are decorated with fresh flowers and paper flowers, which is a Sufi tradition of the Thai Muslim community.









Traveling south from Champa Village in Ayutthaya, you reach the Klong Takian area. During the Ayutthaya Kingdom, communities of different ethnic groups—including Portuguese, Chinese, Cham, Malay, and Makassarese—were spread along the Klong Takian canal, making it the most culturally diverse area of Ayutthaya at the time.

There are several mosques in the Klong Takian area, the most famous of which is the Kudi Chofa mosque. In 1666, the Dutch East India Company invaded Makassar on the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, causing many Makassarese to flee to Java, Sumatra, and other places. A group of Makassarese also came to the Klong Takian area in the southern suburbs of Ayutthaya. People say the Kudi Chofa mosque was first built in 1677.

Starting in the 17th century, Thailand moved south to invade the Pattani Sultanate established by the Malays. Long-term wars led to many Pattani Malays being brought to Ayutthaya, the capital of Thailand at the time. In the mid-18th century, thousands of Pattani Malay captives were settled in the southern and southwestern suburbs of Ayutthaya to grow rice, and some of them settled at the Kudi Chofa mosque. After Ayutthaya fell in 1767, some Pattani Malays returned to their hometowns, others followed the Thai king south to Thonburi, and some remained in the southern suburbs of Ayutthaya. In 1786, following Thailand's invasion of Pattani, more Pattani Malays arrived at the Kudi Chofa mosque. In 1819, Imam Toh Ki Yam oversaw the reconstruction of the mosque from a wooden structure into a brick and stone building, incorporating styles from Catholic churches and Buddhist temples.

Legend has it that once, King Rama V (reigned 1868-1910) passed by the mosque on a boat, officially named it Kudi Chofa mosque, and gifted it a lamp called Takiang Chaw.

The Kudi Chofa mosque underwent several expansions after the 20th century and was finally rebuilt into its current form in 1978. The interior of the main hall was under renovation when we visited, and a kind friend (dosti) gave us water to drink.



















Three hundred years after Sheikh Tok Takia came to Thailand in the mid-16th century to spread the Sufi Qadiriyya order, the Sufi Sheikh Muhammad Ali Shukri, who is honored as a saint (Wali), revived the Qadiriyya order in Thailand in the 19th century and helped it spread from Ayutthaya to Bangkok and Pattaya. See "The Gongbei of the Persian Sheikh in Ayutthaya, Thailand."

Sheikh Shukri's tomb shrine (gongbei) is located at the Aliyid Daroun Mosque (Masjid Aliyid Daroun) on the banks of the Chao Phraya River west of Ayutthaya city, which is a mosque community established by Pattani Malays in the 19th century. Thailand invaded Pattani twice in 1831-1832 and 1838, splitting it into seven small states, which was the period when the largest number of Pattani Malays moved to central Thailand.















After the 19th century, due to the preaching of the Sufi Sheikh Shukri, some Malay friends (dosti) who lived along the Khlong Ta Kian canal in the southern suburbs of Ayutthaya and originally belonged to the Kudi Chofa mosque community began to follow the Qadiriyya order, and in the early 20th century, Imam Omar Buleh founded the Yamiul Islam mosque community. Today, the tomb shrine (gongbei) of Imam Omar Buleh is built in the backyard of the mosque, and the Buleh family has held the position of mosque imam hereditarily ever since.



















The Pakistan Mosque in Ayutthaya is located in the northern part of the city and is the only mosque currently situated inside the old city of Ayutthaya. In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire and the Ayutthaya Kingdom had a very close relationship, with many Mughals coming to Ayutthaya to do business, and some even entering the royal court to serve as advisors and ministers. In 1685, Chevalier de Chaumont, the first envoy sent by King Louis XIV of France to the Ayutthaya court, recorded that the "Moors" in Ayutthaya included Turks, Persians, Mughals, Golkondas (from the Deccan region of South India), and Bengalis. In 1690, the German doctor Engelbert Kaempfer visited Ayutthaya and described that "on the main road connecting the north of the city to the royal palace, there were shops owned by Chinese, Hindustanis, and Moors." view all

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Summary: This first part of the Yangon mosque guide records visits to twenty-three mosques in and around the old city, including Indian Sunni, Indian Shia, and Yunnan Hui Muslim sites. It keeps the source's mosque sequence, community background, architecture, and historical observations.

A detailed introduction to the twenty-three mosques in Yangon, Myanmar (Part 1)

On this trip to Yangon, I visited twenty-three mosques in the old city and surrounding areas. Eighteen belong to Indian Sunni Muslims, four to Indian Shia Muslims, and one belongs to Hui Muslims from Yunnan.

I have already introduced the Shia and Hui mosques in Yangon in my articles 'The Largest Shia Mosque in Southeast Asia—Yangon' and 'Hui Mosques and Hui Food in Yangon, Myanmar.' This time, I will introduce the eighteen Indian Sunni mosques in Yangon.

Although I have visited Southeast Asia many times, countries like Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia follow the Shafi'i school of thought. Their prayer movements and timings are different from ours, and I often felt out of place during namaz. This time, I finally reached a Hanafi region in Southeast Asia: Yangon, Myanmar. The prayer movements of the brothers (dosti) in Yangon are exactly the same as those of the Hui Muslims, so I felt very at home in the mosques every time.

There is another special feature in Yangon's mosques: almost every mosque has a shoe storage area with a brother (dosti) specifically in charge of looking after the shoes. This man has a great memory. After you finish your namaz, he will bring your shoes out and hand them to you before you even ask. He never mixes up anyone's shoes. Also, he does not accept any tips at all. In India and Egypt, I have always been charged a tip for shoe storage. That is why some brothers (dosti) in India would rather carry a bag for their shoes than use a storage service.

In the mosques of Yangon, the time between the afternoon prayer (dhuhr) and the late afternoon prayer (asr) is for studying scripture. Both adults and children sit in a circle to learn from the imam, and the atmosphere is wonderful.

Unlike in Malaysia, mosques in Yangon are not open all day and are usually locked outside of the five prayer times. This made visiting them more difficult, but alhamdulillah, I managed to visit most of the ones I wanted to see.

Indian brothers (dosti) have been settled in Yangon for 200 years. After the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1826, merchants from British India began traveling to Myanmar for business. The first to arrive in Yangon were Gujarati merchants from Surat in western India. In 1826, they built the Surti Sunni Jumu'ah Mosque in Yangon. In the same year, two officers from the Konbaung Dynasty of Myanmar also built the Triangle Mosque in Yangon. These were the first two mosques in the city.

After the British occupied Yangon in 1853, brothers (dosti) from Gujarat, Bengal, and the Tamil and Andhra regions of South India arrived in Yangon one after another. Many Gujarati merchants opened companies and built mosques in Yangon. The Mamusa family alone built two. Because the British made Yangon part of the Bengal Presidency of British India, a wave of Bengali immigration to Yangon began. The Bengali community also built three mosques in Yangon. At the same time, Tamils from South India followed the Indian Ocean monsoon winds across the Bay of Bengal to Yangon and also built two mosques.

Below, I will introduce the eighteen Indian Sunni mosques in Yangon one by one.

The Sunni Jumu'ah Bengali Mosque is located next to the Sule Pagoda in the center of Yangon's old city. It was founded by Bengali brothers (dosti) in 1862. After the British occupied Yangon in 1852, they made it part of the Bengal Presidency of British India, which triggered a wave of Bengali immigration to Yangon.

The Bengali Mosque was originally a wooden structure. It was rebuilt as a brick building in 1902 and renovated into the current tiled building in 1992. Now, you can see Arabic, English, Bengali, and Burmese on the gate and the prayer schedule. Because it is in the center of Yangon's old town and due to the Rohingya issue, some Burmese nationalist groups have long wanted to tear down the Bengali Mosque.



















The Bengali Mosque (Bengali Dosti) was the second Sunni Friday mosque built in Yangon in 1932. It is located on 91st Street in the northern part of the old town, right next to the railway. The mosque looks very grand, and its minaret decorations are also quite ornate.



















The Chulia Friday Mosque is in Yangon's Indian quarter, not far west of the Bengali Mosque. It was built in 1856 by South Indian Tamil Dosti. The name Chulia comes from the Chola dynasty that once ruled the Tamils. Long ago, Tamil Dosti followed the Indian Ocean monsoon winds across the Bay of Bengal to the coasts of Southeast Asia. The Jamae Mosque in Singapore's Chinatown was built by Tamils in 1826. After the British occupied Yangon in 1852, the number of Tamils immigrating to Yangon kept growing, and the Chulia Friday Mosque was established as a result.

The Chulia Friday Mosque was originally a wooden structure. It was rebuilt as a brick building in 1869, and in 1936, it was rebuilt into its current form by the Iranian-Armenian contractor AC Martin. AC Martin built many structures in Yangon, including the General Post Office.

There is a water well inside the Chulia Friday Mosque, and whenever there is a water shortage, it provides water for the Indian quarter. In 1941, the Japanese military bombed Yangon on a large scale, and the Chulia Friday Mosque was also damaged. Later, a porch was built in 1955, and the main hall was built in 1963. Currently, the shops on the first floor of the main hall are very busy, and the second floor can host wedding banquets. When we visited, there were wedding banquets being held every morning.



















The Chulia Muslim Dargah Mosque is located opposite Bogyoke Aung San Market in the northern part of Yangon's old town. It is the second mosque built in Yangon by South Indian Tamil Dosti. It was funded by a Tamil couple born in Myanmar, Kassim Kaderlt and Daw Nyein Mae, in 1886, and renovated into its current appearance in 1995.

The original meaning of Dargah in Persian is 'portal,' which later evolved to mean a Sufi gongbei shrine. However, I did not find any gongbei or shrine inside the mosque.



















The Surti Sunni Friday Mosque is located on Mogul Street in the Indian quarter of Yangon's old town. It was first built in 1826 by Gujarati merchants from Surat in western India, but it was destroyed during the British invasion of Yangon in 1852. In the 1860s, the wealthy Gujarati company Sooratee Bara Bazaar led the reconstruction of the Surti Mosque, and it officially opened in 1871.

Many of Yangon's Gujarati Dosti came from the town of Rander near Surat. Historically, this was an important port in western India. As early as the 13th century, a large number of Arab merchants from Kufa, Iraq, lived there, and by the 16th century, the port was piled high with Sumatran spices and Chinese porcelain. After the 19th century, Gujarati merchants from Rander began to go to Yangon for business. Currently, many old houses in Rander are built of Burmese teak, and restaurants in Rander even serve a snack called Yangon paratha.



















The Muhammadiyah Madrasa in Yangon, Myanmar, is located opposite the Surti Sunni Friday Mosque. It was first built in 1855 by Gujarati merchants from the town of Rander in Surat, western India. Before 1900, the madrasa only taught religious knowledge and Urdu. In 1900, it officially introduced English education, and in 1909, it officially transformed into the comprehensive Rander High School.

Although it was founded by wealthy Gujarati Dosti merchants, the school was open to everyone. Sunnis, Shias, Christians, Hindus, and Buddhists could all enroll. By 1927, all the teachers except for the principal were British. Before 1948, the school was supported by the British and taught in English. After 1948, it switched to teaching in Burmese, and after 1965, the government officially took over the school.





The Mamsa Mosque is located on 26th Street in the Indian quarter of Yangon's old town. It was built in 1923 by the Mamsa family, who were Gujarati merchants from Surat in western India. The Mamsa family gained a great deal of wealth by investing in real estate and still collects rent from more than 150 buildings today.















The Esof Ahmed Mamsa Family Mosque is in Tamwe Township, north of Yangon's old city. The Mamsa family, merchants from Gujarat, India, built it in 1937. In 1995, they renovated it to its current look using rent collected from family-owned properties.

The mosque has a tall clock tower facing the street. At the top is a clock made by the old Berlin, Germany, watchmaker C. F. Rochlitz, which still works today. If you look closely at the clock tower, you can still see bullet holes left from when the Japanese army invaded Yangon in 1942. The German company C. F. Rochlitz started in 1824 and specialized in clocks for towers. It won many international awards in the 19th century and stayed under the Rochlitz family until it was bought in 1984.



















The Narsapuri Moja Sunni Jame Mosque is in the middle of Mogul Street in Yangon's old Indian quarter, north of the Surti Mosque. Friends (dosti) from Andhra Pradesh on the southeast coast of India first built it in 1855, and it was rebuilt into its current form in the 1890s.

Unlike northern India, where the faith spread through occupation, the faith in southern India mostly grew through merchants and Sufi saints. The dosti from Andhra Pradesh speak a special Deccan Urdu. Compared to northern Urdu, it keeps more ancient words from the pre-Mughal era and adds many loanwords from local Deccan languages like Telugu and Tamil.

The mosque is named after Narsapur, a coastal city in Andhra Pradesh, India. The dosti from Andhra Pradesh in Yangon boarded ships there to come to Yangon. The Dutch used Narsapur as a port in the 17th century. By the 18th century, it became an important Indian trade port and shipbuilding center, exporting large amounts of teak to the world.















The Gulam Ariff Mosque is on Lanmadaw Road in Yangon's Chinatown. The Indian real estate developer Gulam Ariff built it in 1888. Gulam Ariff owned a famous real estate company in Yangon. This mosque has fewer people, but it provides great convenience for the dosti who live and work near Chinatown.



















The Hashim Kasim Patel Trust Mosque is on the far west side of Yangon's old city. The Kasim Patel family from Surat, India, built it in 1922, and the family still manages it today.

After the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1826, merchants from British India began traveling to Myanmar for business. The Kasim Patel family moved from Mumbai, India, to Myanmar in the 1830s. They first worked in the silk trade in Mawlamyine. After the British occupied Yangon in 1853, they moved to Yangon to open shops. The family started a company named after the eldest son, Hashim Kasim Patel. They also ran the Gulam Ariff Company and the Boglay Bazzar Company. From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, the Kasim Patel family held a very high status among the Gujarati dosti in Yangon.



















The Chittagong Sunni Arkaty Chota Mosque is on 40th Street on the east side of Yangon's old city. Dosti from Chittagong, Bangladesh, built it. Chittagong is an ancient natural port in Bangladesh. It has been an important passage for the southern Silk Road since ancient times. Arab merchants began trading there in the 9th century, and the famous traveler Ibn Battuta and Zheng He's fleet both visited. After 1666, the Mughal Empire ruled Chittagong. During this time, Chittagong developed quickly and became a shipbuilding center. After 1823, the British occupied both Chittagong and Lower Myanmar, and the dosti from Chittagong began moving to Myanmar to make a living.













The Triangle Mosque is on Upper Pansodan Road, north of Yangon's old city. It is one of the oldest mosques in Yangon. Two officers of King Bagyidaw (who reigned from 1819 to 1837) of the Konbaung Dynasty, U Shwe Thie and U Shwe Mie, built it in 1826. This mosque was badly damaged during the Japanese invasion of Yangon in World War II, but it was later renovated.









The Mayin Gon Jame Mosque is in Sanchaung Township, north of Yangon's old city. It was first built in 1930. The spiral staircase inside the mosque was provided by Cowie Brothers, an exporter from Glasgow, Scotland. The company's founder, Charles, was once a manager at the Rangoon Oil Company and exported many goods to Myanmar from the late 19th to the early 20th century.

Mogul Street Jumu'ah Mosque (Mogul Street Jumu'ah Mosque) is located at the very busy Mogul Street intersection. Surrounded by many shopping malls, it is known as the New York Times Square of Yangon. Every Friday, many friends (dost) come to the mosque for Jumu'ah prayers. Although the mosque director has been applying to expand the mosque, it has never been approved due to the current situation.



















Musmeah Yeshua Sunni Jumu'ah Mosque (Musmeah Yeshua Sunni Jumu'ah Mosque) is located in the Tamwe Township in northern Yangon. It was founded in 1908 by the Indian businessman Musmeah Yeshua. The top of the main hall features twenty-two intricate domes and small towers, making it the most distinctive mosque in Yangon. Despite damage from two earthquakes, most of the original design of the main hall, including the stained glass windows imported from India, has been preserved to this day.

According to newspaper records from the early 20th century, Musmeah Yeshua was once a famous gang leader in Yangon. At that time, two major Indian families in Yangon, led by Musmeah and Mamusa, were long-term rivals, which led to many gang incidents. The Straits Times reported on December 21, 1923, that Musmeah Yeshua himself clashed with a rival gang called the Sultans. He was injured by a series of glass soda bottles thrown from a roof and was later forced to apply to the police for protective custody.

In every mosque in Yangon, the time between the dawn prayer (fajr) and the sunrise prayer (shuruq) is for studying the Quran. Adults and children learn the Quran sentence by sentence in the mosque, which is the best time to experience the religious atmosphere of Yangon.



















Kantaw Kalay Ywar Houng Mosque is located on Upper Pansodan Road, north of the old city of Yangon and not far north of the Triangle Mosque. Its founding date is unknown, and it was rebuilt into its current structure in 1940. This is another area in Yangon outside the Indian quarter where Indian friends (dost) live. Yunnan Hui Muslims also live here, so there is a lot of delicious food on the street, much like Shuncheng Street in Kunming or Niujie in Beijing. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This second part of the Yangon mosque guide continues through the city's old mosque quarters, including the shrine of Bahadur Shah II and other Muslim sites near the National Museum area. It preserves the source's mosque names, locations, community notes, and historical details.

A detailed guide to the twenty-three mosques of Yangon, Myanmar (Part 2)











The shrine (gongbei) of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, is located inside the shrine complex, right next to the National Museum of Myanmar. In 1858, Bahadur Shah II was exiled to Yangon. He lived in a small wooden house near the Shwedagon Pagoda until he passed away in 1862. Because his grave had no markings and only his two children and a servant attended the funeral, his burial site was soon forgotten. In 1905, the local Muslims (dosti) in Yangon protested to the British, and in 1907, the British agreed to put up a tombstone. In 1991, workers digging a drainage ditch accidentally found a brick grave. After identification, it was confirmed to be the grave of Bahadur Shah II himself. The shrine (gongbei) for Bahadur Shah II was officially completed in 1994, and a prayer hall was built next to it.

Bahadur Shah II was a devout Sufi sheikh during his life, and today his shrine (gongbei) has become a famous Sufi holy site in Myanmar. Since there are no Muslims (dosti) living near the shrine (gongbei), not many people come here for namaz on a daily basis.



















The Thinchai Sunni Maha Maiden mosque is located inside the Yangon Sunni cemetery. It is mainly used by those visiting graves, and the current building was constructed in 1989. There are also several tombs (mazar) of Sufi saints inside the Yangon Sunni cemetery, and many Muslims (dosti) often come here to perform religious gatherings (gu'ermaili).



















I visited the Golab Khan Jumu'ah mosque on Tha Mein Ba Yan Street in northern Yangon, where I also met children studying the Quran. Overall, after walking around this time, I feel that the religious atmosphere in Yangon is very strong. view all

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Summary: Yangon's Mughal Shia Mosque was founded in 1854 by Persian-Indian merchants and is described as the largest Shia mosque complex in Southeast Asia. This account covers its mosque compound, Muharram practices, Khoja community, and wider Shia history in Myanmar.

The Mughal Shia Mosque in Yangon, Myanmar, is the largest Shia mosque in Southeast Asia. It was founded in 1854 by Persian-Indian merchants who were among the first to settle in Yangon.

The British East India Company opened factories in Yangon starting in the 1790s, which led to the arrival of Persian and Indian Shia merchants. These Shia friends (dosti) and others from Iran, Afghanistan, and India were collectively called Mughals by the Burmese people. After the 19th century, these Mughals often served as intermediaries and translators between the British and the Burmese, becoming a key part of Yangon's foreign trade.

In 1852, the British officially occupied Yangon and made it the capital of British Burma. They hired army engineers to design a grid-patterned city, and the Shia community established the Mughal Shia Mosque. The Mughal Shia Mosque was originally a teak wood building. Between 1914 and 1918, mosque trustees from Isfahan, Shiraz, Khorasan, and Kabul in Iran and Afghanistan raised funds to rebuild it in its current Hyderabad style. The Shia faith developed on the Deccan Plateau in southern India between the 14th and 16th centuries. The Qutb Shahi dynasty declared it the state religion in 1518. Its capital, Hyderabad, was developed in 1591 with the help of Shia scholar and scientist Mir Muhammad Momin, and it later became a center for Shia culture in India.

S. Afsheen, a descendant of a trustee of the Yangon Mughal Shia Mosque, wrote in his autobiography that his ancestors were court advisors in the Mughal Empire. In the 19th century, his great-grandfather's father, Hasan Ali Khorasanee, came to Yangon to trade. He secured favorable trade terms and built a powerful trading company. Hasan Ali Khorasanee's son bought several properties in Yangon and ran leather and other trading businesses, which made the Khorasanee family one of the trustees of the Mughal Shia Mosque.

The Mughal Shia Mosque is located on Shwe Bon Thar Street in Yangon's Indian quarter. This street was originally called Mughal Street and is the area where Indian shops in Yangon are most concentrated. The mosque consists of a Mughal hall facing the street, a main prayer hall, and two tall minarets. The shops in the Mughal hall facing the street are rented out.



















The layout of the main hall in the Yangon Mughal Shia Mosque is different from Sunni mosques. The hall has separate sections for men and women on either side, covered with prayer rugs, and features a mihrab to indicate the direction of prayer. The center is used for delivering the khutbah sermon and holding mourning ceremonies during the first month of the Islamic calendar.

In the middle of the hall is the minbar, the pulpit where the imam delivers the khutbah. Above the pulpit sits a metal hand called a Panja, which symbolizes the hand of Abbas, the standard-bearer for Imam Hussain, which was cut off during the Battle of Karbala. Abbas was the half-brother of Imam Hussain. People say on the night of Ashura, he was blocked by enemy troops while returning with water from the Euphrates River. He fought alone, had both arms cut off, and eventually died in battle.

On both sides of the pulpit are symbolic tombs for Imam Hassan and Imam Hussain, decorated with replicas of the swords and turbans (dastar) they used. They are considered the second and third imams of the Shia faith.

In front of the hall stands an Alam flagpole used during Ashura processions. It features a pear-shaped flat top with two dragon heads in the middle, symbolizing the sword of Ali.

Inside the hall are prayer tablets (turbah), known in Persian as mohr, which Shia Muslims use for prostration. Shia tradition requires prostrating on natural materials, so most people choose clay tablets. The most revered ones are made from the soil of Karbala, where Imam Hussain was martyred. This was my first time seeing them made of wood and stone.



















The Mughal Shia Mosque in Yangon features unique calligraphy art. The gate is inscribed with the Shia version of the Shahada, which includes one extra phrase compared to the Sunni version: Ali-un-Waliullah, meaning Ali is the friend (wali) of Allah.







On 32nd Street, near the Sule Pagoda in the center of old Yangon, there is a Shia ceremonial hall called Hazarat Abbas (A. S) Astana Alamdar-e-Husayn. Built in 1856, it is an important ceremonial center for the Shia community in Yangon. Unlike the mosque, this place is used by the Shia community for commemorative ceremonies during the first and second months of the Islamic calendar and during Ramadan. It is an important way for the Shia community to strengthen their unity.

The hall has two floors. The first floor has the English words: 'Live like Ali, die like Hussain'. In the middle of the second floor sits a Punja, which is a symbol of the severed hand of Abbas, the standard-bearer for Imam Hussain during the Battle of Karbala. On both sides are tombs representing Imam Hussain and the standard-bearer Abbas, who were both martyred in the Battle of Karbala. An elder at the mosque showed me a book in Burmese about the standard-bearer Abbas.

In the Shia tradition, the standard-bearer Abbas is seen as the ultimate example of courage, love, sincerity, and self-sacrifice. Many Shia Muslims take oaths in his name or give out food in his honor. The death of Abbas is the oldest passion play in the Shia tradition, and verses about him often appear in Shia architectural decorations.

























Punja Mosque is located on 38th Street on the east side of Yangon's old town. It was built in 1877 and is another Shia mosque in Yangon. You can also see the Shia Kalima on the mosque gate, with the added phrase 'Ali is the Wali of Allah'. The main hall is divided into two parts: the right side is a hall for mourning Imam Hussain, and the left side is the prayer hall. In the center of the right hall sits a tomb representing Imam Hussain. The left room contains the minbar, the pulpit where the Imam gives the khutbah. On the right is the Punja, representing the severed hand of Imam Hussain's standard-bearer Abbas during the Battle of Karbala, which is how this mosque got its name.





























Besides the Twelver Shia, there are two other Shia minority mosques on Mughal Street in Yangon. Unfortunately, they are no longer in use because there are too few members left.

The Dawoodi Bohra Saifee Mosque is on the west side of Mughal Street. It was built by the Dawoodi Bohra sect in 1898. I have visited their mosques in Bangkok and Singapore before. The Dawoodi Bohra are a small branch of the Ismaili Shia. This branch has only a few million followers, most of whom live in the Indian state of Gujarat and the city of Karachi in Pakistan. The Dawoodi Bohra originated from the Ismaili Shia Fatimid Caliphate, which ruled North Africa from the 10th to the 12th century. In 1067, the Imam of the Fatimid Caliphate sent a man named Abdullah from Yemen to Gujarat, India, to preach, and he was very successful. Since then, the followers in Gujarat have kept in touch with Yemen and continued to grow. In 1589, the community leader Dawood Bin Qutubshah took office. A split occurred with Yemen, and they have been called the Dawoodis ever since.

Starting in the 19th century, Dawoodi Bohra members from Gujarat, India, began traveling across the Indian Ocean to do business. Many became wealthy merchants and industrialists, and some settled in Yangon, which has a large Indian population.







His Highness The Agakhan Building Myanmar Ismaili Khoja Jamatkhana is on the east side of Mughal Street. It was built in 1949 by the Khoja people, who follow the Nizari Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. They share the same faith as the Tajik people in China. The name Khoja comes from the title the 14th-century Ismaili scholar Pir Sadardin used for his followers. Sadardin was born in Persia and spent a long time preaching in South Asia. He promoted tolerance and integration between Islam and Hinduism, which led many merchants from the Lohana caste in Gujarat to convert.

The Khoja began doing business in Mumbai, India, in the 18th century. Later, they moved to South Asia, Oman, East Africa, Madagascar, and other places to trade and settle. Some also settled in Yangon. The Khoja community center is called a Jamatkhana, or 'Jummah hall,' where they hold congregational prayers, wedding banquets, and various memorial events. view all

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Summary: This article introduces Dr. Omar Suleiman's reflection on the dehumanization of Muslims from Srebrenica to Gaza. It keeps the core historical framing, author information, and publication dates while removing website navigation and subscription boilerplate.

The genocide that occurred in Srebrenica 29 years ago this week, when some 8,000 mostly Muslim Bosniaks were killed by a Serbian nationalist militia, was the largest genocide Europe has seen since the Holocaust. It didn’t come out of nowhere. Read the blog to explore more. Authored by Dr. Omar Suleiman Published: July 8, 2024 •Muharram 2, 1446 Updated: February 13, 2026 •Shaban 25, 1447 Read time: 4 minutes Dr. Omar Suleiman Founder & President (CEO) view all

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Summary: The third week of Beijing Mawlid gatherings covers Nanxiapo Mosque outside Chaoyang Gate and Tongzhou Xiguan Mosque near Tongzhou Beiyuan. The article records Mawlid rituals, Nanxiapo community history, Ma Jun burial memories, Tongzhou mosque rebuilding, and a traditional twelve-dish mosque feast.

Three weeks have passed since the start of the month of Mawlid (Shengji Yue) in Beijing, and it is now coming to an end. In the first two weeks, I attended five Mawlid gatherings in Dongsi, Balizhuang, Yangzha, Sanlihe, and Xihui. This weekend, I went to two more in Nanxiapo and Tongzhou Xiguan. Including the four gatherings I attended in Xi'an during the Spring Festival, I have been to eleven Mawlid gatherings this year.

Mawlid is a key way to pass on traditional faith culture. By learning about the Prophet's teachings on peace, kindness, mutual help, and honesty, and by taking part in traditional ceremonies, we deepen our connection to the roots and values of our faith. This shared cultural memory is the foundation that brings our community together.

During these gatherings, friends (dosti) of all ages and from different families talk to each other, which builds friendships and strengthens our unity. For the younger generation of friends (dosti), taking part in Mawlid activities helps them feel at home in the mosque community, learn traditional culture and morals, and keep strong ties with their elders.

A key part of Mawlid is charity (shesan). This shows the faith's focus on charity and the traditional culture of helping each other through hard times. A bowl of meat porridge and a bag of fried dough (youxiang) help friends (dosti) feel the warmth of the faith, strengthening their sense of belonging and cultural unity.

On Saturday morning, we attended the Mawlid gathering at Nanxiapo, outside Chaoyang Gate. Imams from various mosques in Chaoyang District led the opening prayers, local elders finished the recitations, and the local imam gave a sermon (wa'erzi). Afterward, we had tea and snacks, and received meatballs, shredded beef (songrou), and fried dough (youxiang) given out by the mosque.

































The south wing of the Nanxiapo mosque opened an exhibition hall introducing the history of the local mosque community, and many friends (dosti) came to visit.

As a major hub for the Grand Canal grain transport, the area outside Chaoyang Gate once had many mosque communities like Nanzhongjie, Nanxiapo, and Shegutang, but only Nanxiapo remains today. According to the memories of local elders, the Nanxiapo mosque dates back to the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. At that time, a shed builder used bamboo poles and reed mats to build a large shelter in Nanxiapo. An imam named Hu Zhonghe led the local Hui Muslims in prayer inside the mat shed, which was the first Nanxiapo mosque. In the early years of the Kangxi reign, a Hui Muslim surnamed Ma who sold bows and arrows near Chaoyang Gate heard about the situation in Nanxiapo. He had just received payment for a large order of bows and arrows from some Mongols, so he donated the money to officially build the Nanxiapo mosque.

Most of the leaders of the Nanxiapo mosque have been descendants of the first leader, Hu Zhonghe. Hu Zhonghe's 12th-generation descendant, Hu Degui, was born in 1883. After his parents died young, his 15-year-old son Hu Zichen took over his father's work in 1898 as the second leader (haitebu) of the Nanxiapo mosque, and people called him Master Hu the Second. At that time, the imam of the Nanxiapo mosque was Hu Wenzhi, and the third master was Ma Shikuan, known as Master Ma the Third.

In 1900, when Empress Dowager Cixi fled west, bandits appeared everywhere, and many shops on Chaoyangmen Outer Street were robbed. The 17-year-old Imam Hu Zichen organized a local defense group in Nanxiapo. Young Hui Muslims joined eagerly; some were wrestlers, some knew martial arts, some were cart drivers, and the wealthy ones even bought firearms. Every night, everyone gathered at the gate of the Nanxiapo mosque, split into groups, and patrolled the streets to keep watch, finally getting through the crisis safely.

On February 15, 1928, after the martyr Ma Jun died, his body (maiti) was washed at the Nanxiapo mosque by Imam Hu Wenzhi and Imam Hu Zichen. Local elders and friends (dosti) donated burial cloth (kafan), and he was buried in the northwest corner of the Temple of the Sun.

In 1947, when the Nationalist army was rounding up young men for forced labor at the Nanxiapo barracks, the young Hui Muslims were terrified. With the help of the imams and elders, they climbed wooden ladders to the roof of the main hall of the Nanxiapo mosque. After they were hidden, the imams and elders immediately hid the ladders. When the Nationalist troops came to the mosque to grab people, the imams persuaded them to leave. Everyone lay on the roof for the whole day and finally escaped the danger.











On Sunday, I attended a religious gathering at the Tongzhou Xiguan Mosque. The Tongzhou Xiguan Mosque is not far from the Tongzhou Beiyuan subway station on the Batong Line, so it is easy to get to. The Tongzhou Xiguan Mosque was first built in 1766 (the 31st year of the Qianlong reign). The original building was torn down in 1980, rebuilt in 1999 to resume activities, and moved to its current location in 2012.

We went into the main hall to listen to the imams from various mosques in Tongzhou recite scriptures, and then we studied the imam's sermon (wa'ez). The imam talked about the importance of praising the Prophet during the Mawlid (Shengji) celebration. He used a traditional style of scripture teaching that sounded very ancient and meaningful.













After leaving the hall, we ate a traditional twelve-dish feast (nietie xi), which included stir-fried lamb liver, winter melon with dried shrimp, steamed fish, sesame lamb, steamed lamb, beef stew, yam stew, kelp stew, fried tofu puff stew, meatball stew, fried crispy meat (songrou), and candied yam and date rolls (tangjuan guo). It was a very auspicious meal that both the elderly and children enjoyed.

















When leaving, the mosque gave out fried dough (youxiang) and meat porridge. Since I had just received some fried dough yesterday, I only took the meat porridge. view all

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Summary: Hujia Mosque in Xindu District, Chengdu, was first built in 1738 and is tied to Qing-era Hui Muslim migration into Sichuan. The article records the Hu family's military and imam history, the mosque mihrab couplets, and the wider network of Xindu mosques.

Xindu is in the north of Chengdu. It is an important gateway for traveling north from Chengdu along the ancient Shu Road (Jinniu Road). Hui Muslims began moving here from the northwest during the Ming Dynasty, and they built the Luojia Mosque (Luojia Si) in 1417. Between the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, forces including the Southern Ming, Zhang Xianzhong, remnants of Li Zicheng's army, the Qing army, and Wu Sangui fought repeatedly in Sichuan. This caused the population to drop sharply and the land to go to waste for decades. By the Kangxi era, the Qing Dynasty finally controlled Sichuan. They began to restore production and invited people to farm the land, which led many Hui Muslims to settle in Xindu. Between the Kangxi and Guangxu eras, seven mosques were built in Xindu: Majia Mosque, Hunan Mosque, Tangjia Mosque, Hujia Mosque, Qingjing Mosque, Chengyi Mosque, and Zhenyi Mosque. All of these were related to the Qing Dynasty's immigration policies in Sichuan.

Hujia Mosque is located at Hujia Bridge in Xindu and was first built in 1738. According to the Hujia Family Genealogy in Xindu, their ancestors were from Jiuligou in Weinan County, Shaanxi. The Hu family of Xindu was famous during the Qing Dynasty for producing military officers. During the Qianlong era, Hu Chenglin served as a captain (qianzhong) in the Qing army. He died in battle in 1772 while the Qing army was fighting in Jinchuan. His younger brother, Hu Songlin, rose to the rank of regional commander (zongbing). In 1763, he helped build the Nine Mosques of Chengdu.

During the Xianfeng era, Hu Songlin served as a guerrilla commander (youji) in Hunan. He fought against the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom for years, moving from Guangxi and Hunan to Jiangsu. He won many victories while capturing places like Lishui, Jurong, and Zhenjiang in Jiangsu. His son, Hu Kunyuan, joined the army at seventeen to fight the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He won many battles, capturing Gaochun, Taiping, and Wuhu. He rose to the rank of regional commander (zongbing) and eventually died in battle at Moling Pass. According to the Draft History of Qing, Kunyuan served in the army for eight years and was known for his loyalty and courage. He was good at using a small force to defeat a large one and acted as a commander. He and his father used all the money they earned to support their brave soldiers. Wherever their flags pointed, the enemy was defeated. He received six imperial gold medals and suffered two second-degree wounds and twelve first-degree wounds. He had his neck burned and fingers cut off, and he nearly died many times. After he died, people all over the country mourned him.

In modern times, the Hu family of Xindu is famous for producing imams. Imam Hu Tingzhang was known as one of the Four Great Imams of the Republic of China in Henan. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, he taught at the East Mosque in Chengdu. Even while Japanese planes were bombing the city, he insisted on leading the congregation in Friday prayers (Jumu'ah) among the ruins. Later, Imam Hu Tingzhang was hired to teach in many places in Henan, where he trained many students. Imam Wang Jingzhai praised Imam Hu Tingzhang as a mentor for Islamic scripture education in China. Imam Hu Xuelan was the nephew of Imam Hu Tingzhang and served as an imam at the Nine Mosques of Chengdu and the Kangding Mosque. During the War of Resistance Against Japan, he worked at the International Radio Station in Chengdu, broadcasting in Arabic to tell the world about China's determination to fight the war. Also, during the Republic of China era, the brothers Hu Boying and Hu Bokai were in charge of teaching at the Gulou Mosque and the North Mosque in Chengdu.

Hujia Mosque is now located in Group 5 of Longhu Village, Xindu District. Inside the main prayer hall, you can find the only mihrab with Chinese couplets. The right side reads, "Ten thousand generations of mountains and rivers belong to one Lord," the left side reads, "The sun and moon shine upon all living things," and the horizontal plaque reads, "The Original One." view all

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Summary: Xiaoquan Ancient Town in Sichuan has a Hui Muslim community centered on Banbian Street and Xiaoquan Mosque, with roots traced to early Qing migration and military settlement. This travel account follows the town halal food, Deng family history, mosque architecture, Qing-era inscriptions, and Xiaoquan juice beef.

I took the high-speed train from Songpan, Sichuan, to Mianzhu South Station, then took a 20-minute taxi ride to the ancient town of Xiaoquan. The ancient town is quite quiet, and most shops were closed by eight o'clock. I caught the Dengji Restaurant at the gate of Xiaoquan Mosque just in time to get some braised beef (shao niurou). My altitude sickness from Songpan had completely disappeared by then, so I ate a big bowl of rice with the beef and pickled radishes, and my appetite was huge.

Passing by Dengji Restaurant the next day, I saw many flat geese (ban'e) hanging at their door, which is a specialty of the Hui Muslims in Sichuan.

The Deng family is the earliest Hui Muslim family in Xiaoquan ancient town, arriving during the early Qing Dynasty when people moved from Hubei and Hunan to Sichuan. Legend has it that after the Three Feudatories were suppressed during the Kangxi era of the Qing Dynasty, the Sichuan governor asked the Ministry of War to strengthen the Mianzhu garrison. At that time, Hui Muslims surnamed Deng from Cangzhou, Hebei, led their troops to rest at the Hui camp in Liujiaji, Macheng, Hubei, before moving along the Yangtze River to station in Xiaoquan. This is the earliest origin of the Hui Muslims in Xiaoquan.















On the morning at Banbian Street in Xiaoquan, Sichuan, the street was full of various marinated meats made by Hui Muslims, including beef tongue, flat goose (ban'e), and beef sausage, which are very popular. I had a bowl of beef steak rice noodles at a place called Qingfangge. It was very spicy and numbing, and they added blanched pea tips on top. Then I had a freshly baked beef bun (niurou baozi) at another shop, and it tasted delicious.

Most Hui Muslims in Xiaoquan came during the Qing Dynasty migration from Hubei and Hunan. The four major surnames are Deng, Ma, Liu, and Huang, along with others like Zhang, Bao, Ding, La, Li, and Sha. Most of the Hui Muslims in Xiaoquan live in the Banbian Street area near the gate of the Xiaoquan Mosque. Although many people later moved to Chengdu, Deyang, and Mianyang, there are still over a hundred households there today.



















The Xiaoquan Mosque was built during the Kangxi era of the Qing Dynasty next to the Lingu Mosque on Guihua Street, and it was quite small at first. As the number of Hui Muslims grew in the mid-Qing Dynasty, the Deng and Ma families led a fundraising effort in 1840 (the 20th year of the Daoguang reign) to buy the Feng family ancestral hall on Banbian Street. They rebuilt it into the current Xiaoquan Mosque and renovated it again during the Guangxu era, creating the traditional four-sided water courtyard (si shui gui tang) architectural style. The four-sided water courtyard means the four sloping roofs tilt toward the central courtyard, collecting rainwater into the center to create a layout where water from all directions gathers in the bright hall.

The couplet on the main gate was written by Huang Menghui, a local Hui Muslim calligrapher from Xiaoquan. Huang is a retired employee of the Xiaoquan Supply and Marketing Cooperative and is now a committee member of the Xiaoquan Mosque management board. He has loved calligraphy since he was a child and is now a famous Hui Muslim calligrapher in Xiaoquan.



















The Xiaoquan Mosque was severely damaged during the Wenchuan earthquake, but it was later restored, and the Qing Dynasty wood carvings were preserved.



















There are 15 hand-copied scriptures from the Daoguang era currently preserved at the Xiaoquan Mosque.





The Qing Dynasty stone tablets at the Xiaoquan Mosque include one from the 23rd year of the Daoguang reign. It records how a Hui Muslim named Zhang Zongfa honored his parents and, after they passed away, sincerely donated to the Xiaoquan Mosque by buying a vegetable garden, dry land, and building foundations from the Deng family and donating them to the mosque. After Zhang Zongfa passed away, members of the community carved his deeds into stone under the corridor of the mosque to honor his name.















Before leaving, I bought some specialty juice beef (guozhi niurou) on Banbian Street. Xiaoquan juice beef comes from traditional Sichuan braised beef. During the Republic of China era, a Hui Muslim named Ma Daoyong used a method of frying the beef first and then adding flavor to solve the problem of braised beef molding easily. He created a beef that is juicy and flavorful, which eventually developed into the current Xiaoquan juice beef. When Ma Daoyong first sold juice beef, he used the brand name of his eldest son, Ma Changheng. After the public-private partnership in 1956, Ma Daoyong founded the Xiaoquan Supply and Marketing Cooperative Halal Food Factory. His youngest son, Ma Changmeng, took over in 1977 and became the factory director in 1993. In 1995, the organization arranged for Ma Changmeng to work at a hardware company. He later applied for unpaid leave to start his own food factory and began producing Ma Changmeng Juice Beef.

There are many beef juice shops on Banbian Street now, and after walking around, I saw the prices are all about the same. The clerk at this Ma Changbin shop wears a headscarf, and since there were quite a few customers, I decided to buy from them. It actually tastes a bit like shadow beef (dengying niurou), very fragrant and perfect as a snack when you are out and about. view all

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Summary: This second part of the Bangkok Indonesian mosque-quarter guide continues with Darul Abidin Mosque, Bayan Mosque, and the history of Javanese Muslim communities in the city. The article keeps the mosque dates, architectural details, Qur'anic fruit symbolism, community history, and images in order.





Darul Abidin Mosque

Famous architects M. A. Kasem and Kasem Ittikasem built Darul Abidin Mosque in 1912. It features a neoclassical style, and workers added mosaic tiles to it in 1986. The outer walls of the mosque feature pomegranate patterns. Pomegranates, dates, grapes, and other fruits are all mentioned in the Quran. In those two gardens, there are fruits, dates, and pomegranates. Because of this, they often appear in Islamic art.



















Bayan Mosque sits right next to Darul Abidin Mosque. Javanese gardeners built this other mosque in the early 20th century. view all

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Summary: Bangkok has several historic Cham Muslim mosque neighborhoods tied to river trade, military service, canals, and royal boat history. This account covers Ton Son Mosque, Bang Luang Mosque, the Royal Barges Museum area, Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque, Zulugul Muttaqeen Mosque, Darul Falah Mosque, and the photographs in their original order.

I traveled to Bangkok, Thailand, in 2023 and 2025, visiting 25 mosques (masjid) in the city that represent six ethnic groups: Persian, Arab, Indian, Malay, Indonesian, and Champa. Although these friends (dosti) from different ethnic backgrounds have lived in Thailand for over a hundred years and speak Thai in their daily lives, they still keep their unique history, culture, and traditions. I will now share six articles introducing the 25 mosques of these six ethnic groups in Bangkok.

First, I will introduce the five Champa mosques in Bangkok.

Champa (Champa) was a country established by the Cham people (Chams) in southern Vietnam. After the 15th century, the Malacca Sultanate became a powerful state in Southeast Asia, and Champa maintained close ties with it. Malay friends (dosti) integrated with the Cham people through trade and marriage, leading many Cham people to embrace the faith.

After Vietnam broke free from Mongol control in the 14th century, it began moving south to invade Champa. In 1471, the Champa capital of Vijaya (Vijaya) fell, and many members of the Champa royal family and civilians fled to Cambodia for refuge. These Cham people in Cambodia united with the Malays who had settled there earlier, forming a military alliance in the 16th century.

Cham mercenary troops (krom asa Cham) began working for Siam in the early 17th century. Because of their excellent shipbuilding skills and naval combat strength, they were highly praised by the Siamese royal family. These Cham warriors were granted the honor of serving as rowers for the royal barges during Siamese royal processions.

The first mosque in Bangkok: Ton Son Mosque.

In the 17th century, the Thonburi area of Bangkok was a transit port on the Chao Phraya River leading to the Siamese capital of Ayutthaya. At that time, important trade warehouses and customs stations were set up at the mouth of the Yai (Yai) canal, and Cham troops were stationed nearby. In 1688, the royal eunuch (Chao Phraya Ratchawangsanseni) Mahmud built the first mosque in Bangkok here. Because it was located by the Yai canal, it was called Kudi Yai.

The original mosque was built entirely of teak wood, with an architectural style similar to the main halls of Buddhist temples. It was rebuilt as a brick structure in the early 19th century and rebuilt again in 1952 into the current reinforced concrete building. Because the Siamese royal family gifted tropical pine trees (ton son) to the mosque in the 19th century, the mosque was renamed Ton Son Mosque.











The pulpit (minbar) at Ton Son Mosque has a strong Siamese Ayutthaya style, and the prayer niche (mihrab) was preserved from the old building and is very beautifully crafted.









This is the area where the imam stands to lead the prayer (namaz), and it also has a very Thai style.







There is a depiction of Mecca (tianfang tu) in the center of the prayer niche (mihrab).





An old house in the mosque built in 1941.





The Yai canal at the entrance of the mosque.



The mosque area is filled with rivers.



Bang Luang Mosque, the only Thai-style mosque in Bangkok.

In 1767, Burma invaded Siam, the capital Ayutthaya fell, and the Cham military camp at the mouth of the Yai River was destroyed. Soon after, Siam moved its capital to Thonburi. The Cham people who fled from Ayutthaya settled around Ton Son Mosque, formed a new Cham community, and continued to serve in the Siamese navy. In 1782, Siam officially moved its capital to Bangkok on the east bank of the Chao Phraya River. They built a royal shipyard and dock opposite the Cham community, and many Cham people became royal sailors and shipbuilders.

With the establishment of the royal shipyard and dock, some Cham people moved to live on the other side of the Yai Canal. People of Malay descent who moved from Ayutthaya and Trat Province in the southeast originally lived here, making a living by rowing boats on the canal to sell goods. Around 1785, a merchant named Toh Yi led the construction of a new mosque called Kudi Mai (New Mosque) or Bang Luang Mosque.

Bang Luang Mosque is the only surviving Thai-style mosque in Bangkok. It has Thai-style white stucco brick walls, and its decorative roof looks very similar to those on Thai temples. The main hall is surrounded by a corridor with 30 pillars, representing the 30 parts of the Quran. The mihrab inside the main hall is the most exquisite part, featuring a purely Thai decorative style, including the Chofa decorative element found on Thai palace architecture. This shape is adapted from the Garuda in Hinduism and Buddhism, but it was redesigned to fit Islamic traditions.



















The atmosphere at Bang Luang Mosque during namaz is very special. Every elder who arrives shakes hands with everyone, and an elder even gave me a drink. You can see everyone wearing a sarong (sarong) tube skirt, which means 'to cover' in Malay. This outfit is perfect for the humid and hot climate of Southeast Asia.



















The wooden-framed scriptures hanging on the walls of Bang Luang Mosque and the porcelain plates embedded in the walls are both over a hundred years old.







This old bell feels like it has a lot of history.





The area around Bang Luang Mosque is still mainly inhabited by Cham and Malay descendants. We chatted for a while with the owner of a small shop opposite the mosque. The owner's family is of Malay descent; the father speaks fluent Thai and Malay, and the son's English is also very good.











Cham Navy and the National Museum of Royal Barges.

In 1778, Thailand invaded Laos. To attack Laos from two sides, Thailand recruited an army of over 10,000 people from the pro-Thai Kingdom of Cambodia, which included several naval companies made up of Cham dosti (friends/comrades). After these Cham naval companies finished participating in the war against Laos, some of them returned with the Thai army to Thonburi, the capital of Thailand at the time. They were under the command of the Second King of Siam (Front Palace). After 1782, they were stationed along the Noi Canal and built the Second King's shipyard and dock next to their camp.

These Cham sailors served for a long time in gunboat patrols against pirates along the Thai coast. Until the Grand Palace and Front Palace navies merged into the Royal Thai Navy in 1880, these Cham sailors continued to serve in the Royal Navy, with some stationed at naval fortifications in Samut Prakan. After the 1910s, the former station of the Cham navy was gradually abandoned.

The National Museum of Royal Barges is currently built on the former site of the Cham navy station. Before the 20th century, the Cham navy served as rowers for the royal barge, a high honor granted to Cham sailors by the Thai royal family.















Noi Canal



Cham community neighborhood—Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque

In 1781, Thailand attacked Cambodia and captured some Cham soldiers. These Cham soldiers were brought back to Bangkok in 1782. These Cham soldiers officially joined the Thai army in 1783 and helped dig the Maha Nak Canal. In the early 19th century, Thailand and Vietnam fought a long war over Cambodia. The canal east of Bangkok became a vital military transport route, moving supplies and soldiers to the Cambodian front, earning it the name Bangkok's Eastern Corridor. The Saen Saep Canal east of Bangkok was completed in 1840, and these Cham soldiers were responsible for guarding it.

Today, you can take a canal boat on the Saen Saep Canal to Sapan Charoenpol station. After crossing the bridge, you will see the Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque built by the descendants of these Cham soldiers. In the late 19th century, as peace returned to eastern Thailand, the area became a silk market and later a tourist destination.



















The Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque displays a collection of porcelain. Many mosques in Bangkok have porcelain display cabinets, which is an interesting tradition.

















Street view of the Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque neighborhood. There are small family-run snack shops in the narrow alleys, though they are usually closed in the afternoon. There is a pavilion by the canal built during the reign of Rama III (1824-1851). During this period, Thailand was frequently at war with Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, and the Saen Saep Canal was the main artery for transporting supplies east from Bangkok. There used to be a pier in front of the pavilion where many supplies were loaded and unloaded. The wood used to build the Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque was also unloaded here.

Today, it has become a place for people to cool off and chat. Next to the pavilion is a small shop selling cold drinks and waffles, where I bought a cup of authentic Thai red tea. Besides the Cham people, Malays from Pattani Province in southern Thailand also live in the Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque neighborhood. After 1786, Thailand invaded the southern Pattani Sultanate several times and captured a large number of Pattani Malays, some of whom were settled in the Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque neighborhood.



















Cham community neighborhood—Zulugul Muttaqeen Mosque

The Zulugul Muttaqeen Mosque is located just west of the Jami-Ul-Khoy-Riyah Mosque. It was built by Cham captives brought back from Cambodia by Thailand during the Siamese-Vietnamese War of 1841-1845.

The mosque is clean and bright. The first floor is a classroom, the second floor is the main prayer hall, and the third-floor terrace offers a panoramic view of the neighborhood.



















Cham community neighborhood—Darul Falah Mosque

The Darul Falah Mosque was also built by Cham captives brought back from Cambodia by Thailand during the Siamese-Vietnamese War of 1841-1845. Bangkok once had its most important Sufi shrine (gongbei), but it is hard to find any trace of it today.

In the early 20th century, Sheikh Hussein Bakri, a Sufi from the Shadhili order in the Hejaz region, lived at the Darul Falah mosque (masjid) in Bangkok. He married a local woman and they had two sons. Before Sheikh Hussein returned to his home country, he predicted that his youngest son, Ahmed Bakri, would pass away, so he told his wife to bury a piece of green cloth with him. Sure enough, his son died just a few days after he left. His wife did not follow his instructions to include the green cloth, so she later urgently asked everyone to open the grave to put it in, but when they opened the grave, Ahmed's body was already gone. The story of the Arab man and the green cloth spread quickly.

After the Saudis conquered the Hejaz region in 1925, they promoted Wahhabism there, forcing many Sufis in the Hejaz to flee. In 1929, Sheikh Hussein Bakri's other son, Sheikh Khalid Bakri, who was also in the Shadhili order, traveled by boat from the Hejaz to the Darul Falah mosque in Bangkok and built the Ahmed shrine (gongbei) inside the mosque. During World War II, when the U. S. military bombed Bangkok, people from all different groups took shelter near the shrine, believing it would keep them safe. The shrine was not moved outside the mosque until the Darul Falah mosque was renovated in the 1950s.

Starting from the Darul Falah mosque, the Shadhili order gradually grew in the eastern suburbs of Bangkok and expanded into central and southern Thailand, becoming an important Sufi order in the country. view all