Reposted from the web

Summary: This second part continues the author’s visits to Shia mosques, jamatkhanas, and Muslim heritage sites in Thailand, Myanmar, and Singapore, with names and historical details kept intact.











Goowatil Islam Mosque in Bangkok

After the Toek Khaw (white brick) mosque was built in 1856, some Dawoodi Bohra Shia merchants from Surat, Gujarat, India, rented a piece of royal warehouse land a few hundred meters upstream. At that time, some Malay Sunni goldsmiths from Sai Buri District in Pattani Province, southern Thailand, also lived nearby. They were skilled at making an alloy of gold, silver, and copper called Nak in Thai.

In 1859, these two groups built a new mosque together. Because the nearby warehouses were built of red brick, it was called Toek Daeng (red brick) mosque, and later renamed Goowatil Islam Mosque.

Among the Indian Shia merchants in the Goowatil Islam Mosque community, Ali Asmail Nana was the most famous. He served as a translator for the Siamese Western Trade Department and earned the title Phra Phichet Sanphanit. He married and had children in Bangkok, and his family later succeeded in real estate development.

After the 20th century, Indian Shia merchants began moving their shops from the old royal warehouses to the busier Song Wat Road area in Bangkok's Chinatown. They started working in more promising professions like commission agents, bankers, insurance brokers, auctioneers, and real estate developers. With the changing times, you can no longer find those Indian Shia merchants at Goowatil Islam Mosque today.



















Myanmar

Mughal Shia Mosque in Yangon

The Mughal Shia Mosque in Yangon, Myanmar, is the largest Shia mosque in Southeast Asia. It was founded in 1854 by Persian-Indian merchants who were the first to settle in Yangon.

The British East India Company opened a factory in Yangon starting in the 1790s, after which Persian and Indian Shia merchants began arriving in Yangon. These Shia friends (dosti) and others from Iran, Afghanistan, India, and elsewhere were collectively called Mughals by the Burmese people. After the 19th century, the Mughals often served as intermediaries and translators for exchanges between the British and the Burmese, becoming an important part of Yangon's foreign trade.

In 1852, the British officially occupied Yangon and made it the capital of British Burma. They hired army engineers to design and plan the grid-like city of Yangon, and the Shia community in Yangon officially established the Mughal Shia Mosque. The Mughal Shia Mosque was originally a teak wood building. Between 1914 and 1918, mosque board members from Isfahan, Shiraz, Khorasan, and Kabul in Iran and Afghanistan raised funds to rebuild it in its current Hyderabad style. The Shia faith developed on the Deccan Plateau in southern India during the 14th to 16th centuries. The Qutb Shahi dynasty declared Shia the state religion in 1518. Its capital, Hyderabad, was built in 1591 with the participation of Shia scholar and scientist Mir Muhammad Momin, and Hyderabad later became a center of Shia culture in India.

S Afsheen, a descendant of a board member of the Yangon Mughal Shia Mosque, wrote in his autobiography that his ancestors were originally court advisors to the Mughal Empire. In the 19th century, his great-grandfather's father, Hasan Ali Khorasanee, came to Yangon to do business, received favorable trade terms, and then developed a powerful trading company. Hasan Ali Khorasanee's son bought many properties in Yangon and operated leather and other trading businesses, which made the Khorasanee family one of the board members of the Mughal Shia Mosque.

The Mughal Shia Mosque is located on Shwe Bon Thar Road in Yangon's Indian quarter. This place was originally called Mughal Street and was the area where Indian shops in Yangon were most concentrated. The mosque consists of the street-facing Mughal Hall, the main prayer hall, and two tall minarets. The shops in the Mughal Hall facing the street are rented out.

















The layout of the main hall at the Mughal Shia mosque in Yangon differs from Sunni mosques. The hall is split into separate areas for men and women, both covered with prayer rugs and featuring a mihrab to indicate the direction of prayer. The center area is used for the khutbah sermon and for mourning ceremonies held every year during the first month of the Islamic calendar.



















Distinctive calligraphy art at the Mughal Shia mosque in Yangon. The main gate is carved with the Shia version of the Shahada, which includes one extra phrase compared to the Sunni version: 'Ali-un-Waliullah,' meaning Ali is the friend (wali) of Allah.







Hazarat Abbas (A. S) Astana Alamdar-e-Husayn in Yangon.

Located on 32nd Street next to the Sule Pagoda in the heart of Yangon's old town, there is a Shia ritual hall called Hazarat Abbas (A. S) Astana Alamdar-e-Husayn. Built in 1856, it is an important ritual center for the Shia community in Yangon. Unlike a standard mosque (masjid), this place is used by the Shia community for memorial ceremonies during the first and second months of the Islamic calendar and during Ramadan. It is an important way for the Shia community to build unity.

The hall has two floors. On the first floor, the words 'Live like Ali, die like Husayn' are written in English. On the second floor, the center displays a Punja, which symbolizes the severed hand of Imam Husayn’s standard-bearer, Abbas, during the Battle of Karbala. On both sides are tombs symbolizing those of Imam Husayn and the standard-bearer Abbas, who were martyred in the battle. An elder at the mosque showed me a book in Burmese about the standard-bearer Abbas.

In the Shia tradition, the standard-bearer Abbas is seen as the ultimate example of courage, love, sincerity, and self-sacrifice. Many Shia people take oaths in his name or give out food in his honor. The death of Abbas is the oldest passion play in the Shia tradition, and verses about him often appear in the decoration of Shia buildings.























Punja Mosque in Yangon.

Located on 38th Street on the east side of Yangon's old town, Punja Mosque was built in 1877 and is another Shia ritual center in Yangon. The Shia Shahada can also be seen on the mosque gate, with the extra phrase 'Ali is the friend of Allah' added at the end. The main hall is divided into two parts: the right side is a hall for mourning Imam Husayn, and the left side is a prayer hall. In the center of the right hall sits a tomb symbolizing Imam Husayn. To the left is a minbar pulpit for the Imam to deliver the khutbah, and on the right is a Punja, symbolizing the severed hand of Imam Husayn’s standard-bearer Abbas from the Battle of Karbala, which is how the mosque got its name.





























Dawoodi Bohra Saifee Mosque in Yangon.

Besides the Twelver Shia, there are two other Shia minority ritual centers on Mughal Street in Yangon. Unfortunately, because there are so few members left, both have stopped operating.

Dawoodi Bohra Saifee Mosque is located on the west side of Mughal Street and was built by the Dawoodi Bohra sect in 1898. Starting in the 19th century, members of the Dawoodi Bohra sect from Gujarat, India, began traveling across the Indian Ocean to trade. Many became wealthy merchants and industrialists, and some settled in Yangon, which had a large Indian population.







His Highness The Agakhan Building Myanmar Ismaili Khoja Jamatkhana in Yangon.

Located on the east side of Mughal Street, His Highness The Agakhan Building Myanmar Ismaili Khoja Jamatkhana was built in 1949 by the Khoja people, who follow the Nizari Ismaili branch of Shia Islam. They belong to the same small branch as the Tajik people in China. The name Khoja comes from a term used by the 14th-century Ismaili scholar Pir Sadardin for his followers. Sadr al-Din was born in Persia and spent a long time preaching in South Asia. He promoted tolerance and integration between Islam and Hinduism, which led many merchants from the Lohana caste in Gujarat to convert.

The Khoja began trading in Mumbai, India, in the 18th century. Later, they settled in places across South Asia, Oman, East Africa, and Madagascar, and some also settled in Yangon. The Khoja community center is called Jamatkhana, or 'Friday prayer hall,' where they hold congregational prayers, wedding banquets, and various commemorative events.











Singapore

Al-Burhani Mosque

Al-Burhani Mosque is located on Hill Street, a main road in Singapore. It is the only Dawoodi Bohra Shia mosque in Singapore.

Starting in the 19th century, members of the Dawoodi Bohras from Gujarat, India, traveled along the Indian Ocean to trade. They began trading dry goods and spices in Singapore in 1875. After the 1920s, more Dawoodi Bohra merchants came from Gujarat to Singapore to do business, and the Dawoodi Bohra community in Singapore was officially formed.

Al-Burhani Mosque was first built in 1895 and was originally small. The high-rise building seen today is how it looked after being rebuilt in 1997. Unfortunately, there was no one inside the mosque when we visited, so we could not talk to anyone.



















Indian Heritage Centre in Singapore

The Indian Heritage Centre in Little India, Singapore, uses a timeline in its main exhibition hall to tell the rich history and culture of Singapore's Indian community. It is divided into five parts: early contact, origins and migration, early Indian descendants in Singapore and Malaya, the social and political awakening of Indian descendants in Singapore and Malaya, and the contributions of Indian descendants to Singapore. Of course, this includes Indian Shia culture.

A Khoja turban worn by the Ismaili Shia Khoja people of Gujarat.



A procession of Indian Shia Muslims during the Ashura festival in the 19th century. On the right is a Ta'ziya, a model of the tombs of Imam Hussein and Hassan, and you can also see Alam flags.



An Alam flagpole carried by South Indian Shia Muslims during an Ashura procession in the 19th century.





Asian Civilisations Museum in Singapore

A porcelain plate for export ordered by Indian Shia Muslims in 1844-45, featuring Persian verses related to the martyrdom of Imam Hussein. The teardrop pattern used here is known as the 'boteh' motif in Persian.



A scroll painting of a Shia Ashura procession in southern India (possibly Chennai) from the 1830s to 1840s. The entire scroll is nearly 6 meters long. You can see a Ta'ziya (a model of the tombs of Imam Hussein and Hassan), Buraq (the mount of the Prophet Muhammad during his Night Journey), Alam flags, the Hand of Abbas, a Sipar shield, and a reenactment of the Battle of Karbala. You can also see the Chennai native infantry, people dressed as animals, and even elements of the Hindu Charak festival, which reflects India's multiculturalism.













A 'Hand of Abbas' from the late 19th to early 20th century. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: The first part of the Nanjing mosque journey focuses on Jingjue Mosque, Caoqiao Mosque, Taiping Road Mosque, and other historic Muslim sites in the old city. This account keeps the original mosque names, inscriptions, dates, architecture, street context, and photographs.

Jingjue Mosque.

Jingjue Mosque is located on Sanshan Street in the south of Nanjing. It was originally called Sanshan Street Mosque. During the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty, it was given the name Jingjue Mosque, making it the first mosque in Nanjing during the Ming period.

One account says Jingjue Mosque was built in 1388 (the 21st year of the Hongwu era) by imperial order to house officials from the Western Regions who had submitted to the Ming, such as Yibulajin and Kemaluding. Another account says it was built in 1392 (the 25th year of the Hongwu era) by imperial order of Saihazhi, a seventh-generation descendant of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din. Both accounts are supported by stone inscriptions from the Ming Dynasty.

According to a 1493 (the 5th year of the Hongzhi era) inscription titled 'Record of the Two Imperial Mosques Built in the South of the City of Yingtian Prefecture in Jiangnan,' it states: 'In the 21st year of the Hongwu era, Yibulajin, Kemaluding, and others, originally from the Rumi Kingdom in the Western Regions, submitted to China along with the Duke of Song after the conquest of Jinshan and Kaiyuan... Therefore, two mosques were built to settle them, and Kemaluding and four other households were assigned to live at the Wangyue Tower Jingjue Mosque.' The family genealogies of two Hui Muslim branches with the surname Ma, known as 'Weiyitang' and 'Baojitang' in Hushu, Nanjing, both record that they are descendants of Ma Gutai and Ma Baihao, who were settled at Jingjue Mosque at that time.

According to a 1405 (the 3rd year of the Yongle era) inscription at the Great Mosque on Huajue Lane in Xi'an, 'On the 14th day of the third month of the 25th year of the Hongwu era, Saihazhi, the seventh-generation descendant of the Prince of Xianyang Sayyid Ajjal, went to the inner court to announce the imperial decree: On that day at the Fengtian Gate, the imperial decree was received:...build two mosques in two locations, one at the copper workshop on Sanshan Street in Yingtian Prefecture, Nanjing, and one on Ziwu Lane in Chang'an County, Xi'an Prefecture, Shaanxi Province.' The 'Genealogy of the Sayyid Ajjal Family' records that Saihazhi was granted the hereditary title of Marquis of Xianning, and 'When the Ming Taizu established the capital in Jinling, he entrusted Saihazhi to build a mosque in Jinling.' After the work was finished, he built the Great Mosque in Chang'an. When the Tiemao Lane Mosque in Taicang, Jiangsu, was renovated in the 1980s, a stone tablet was found inside a wall, revealing that the Taicang mosque was also built by Saihazhi.

Additionally, according to the Republic of China era 'Zhongnan Huaibei Regional Gazetteer,' 'North of the street is Jingjue Mosque. Wu Ru, a man from the Western Regions during the Ming Dynasty, came to China to serve in the Imperial Astronomical Bureau. He lived in Nanjing and built this mosque next to his residence.' Therefore, Jingjue Mosque may have originally been part of Wu Ru's residence.

Jingjue Mosque was destroyed by fire in 1430 (the 5th year of the Xuande era), and Zheng He requested its reconstruction before his seventh voyage to the Western Oceans. According to the 'Record of the Imperial Eunuch Zheng He Rebuilding the Mosque,' it states: 'Your request has been received: The mosque on Sanshan Street in Nanjing has been burned down.' 'You wish to rebuild it to pray for the safety of the funds, grain, people, and ships for your voyage. This shows your respectful heart, so how could it be neglected?' 'As an imperial envoy, since you have set your heart on this, how could your wish be abandoned?' 'If the personnel and materials you use are insufficient, and the project is delayed, you may draw what is needed from the Nanjing Directorate of Palace Servants and the Ministry of Works so that it can be completed in time for you to wait for the favorable winds to set sail. This is the decree.'

During the Taiping Rebellion, most of the bricks, tiles, and wood from Jingjue Mosque were taken down to build a local government office. The mosque was rebuilt in 1877 (the third year of the Guangxu reign) and renovated in 1879 (the fifth year of the Guangxu reign), which created its current layout. In the early years of the Republic of China, a wealthy Nanjing couple, Jiang Xiudong and his wife, paid to build the north and south lecture halls and the main hall. The mosque was repaired again in 1957. After the 1960s, a rubber company and the No. 3 Rubber Factory occupied the mosque. They tore down the only remaining Ming Dynasty brick and stone archway and the Butterfly Hall (hudieting), and destroyed many plaques, couplets, and stone tablets. The mosque was repaired in 1982, reopened in 1983, and the archway was rebuilt in 1985.



During the Ming Dynasty, the main prayer hall of Jingjue Mosque had 81 rooms and was built with nanmu wood. The current main hall was rebuilt in 1877 (the third year of the Guangxu reign). Its floor plan projects outward at the rear, like a raised middle section, and it uses a traditional post-and-beam wooden frame. The main hall and the opposite hall are linked by a covered corridor, forming a straight central axis with halls at both ends. This layout is typical of Jiangnan architecture. The mihrab was moved here from the original mosque on Xiaowangfu Lane, and the surrounding wooden carvings of scripture were added in 2001.



















The back of the prayer hall connects directly to a high wall. This is a typical feature of Jianghuai courtyard-style architecture, which is very rare in the north.





During renovations in 2007, the main hall was raised by one meter. Workers dug two meters deep and found Ming Dynasty glazed tiles, brick carvings, stone railings, and huge Ming Dynasty stone column bases. These bases were twice as wide as those from the Guangxu period.













The only remaining Ming Dynasty structures, the brick and stone archway and the Butterfly Hall, were both torn down in the 1960s. The archway was rebuilt in 1985, the Butterfly Hall in 2004, and a new stele pavilion was built in 1996.



















The only Jahriyya mosque in Nanjing.

Inside Jingjue Mosque, there is a stone tablet from 1891 titled 'Dahua Guizhen'. It records how Wu Defa followed his father Wu Dasong's final wish and donated the back part of their family home at 59 Shigu Road (formerly Xiaofuyuxiang) to establish the Shigu Road Mosque. The tablet mentions two Jahriyya imams, Fan Yuncai and Zhan Fengxiang. Witnesses included neighbors surnamed Chen, Cai, Zhou, and Yu; fellow Muslims surnamed Sun, Li, Wu, Zhan, Zong, and Jin; close relatives surnamed Ha, Ma, and Mai; and clan members surnamed Wu. This tablet was originally kept at the Shigu Road Mosque. After that mosque was torn down in 1986 for road expansion, the tablet was moved to Jingjue Mosque.

Shigu Road Mosque is the only Jahriyya mosque in Nanjing. In the late years of the Qianlong reign of the Qing Dynasty, a Hui Muslim named Wu from Taiyuan, Shanxi, who followed the Jahriyya (Zhepai) order, settled on Shigu Road in Nanjing. Influenced by him, followers of the Jahriyya order (Zhepai gaomu) began to appear around Shigu Road, Sanmaogong, and Nantai Lane in Nanjing, and most of them worked in the fish fry farming industry. At first, the Nanjing Jahriyya followers performed their worship at the Wuxueyuan Mosque (Yuan Mosque) near Shigu Road. During the Taiping Rebellion, the Wuxueyuan Mosque was destroyed by war, so the followers moved their worship to the Fengfu Road Mosque. Because their practice of loud chanting (gaosheng zannian) was different, Wu Defa later invited the Jahriyya followers to perform worship at his own home on Shigu Road, and in 1891 (the 17th year of the Guangxu reign), the Shigu Road Mosque was finally established.

The Nanjing Jahriyya order belongs to the Beishan menhuan. The Beishan menhuan is centered in Beishan, Zhangjiachuan, Gansu. Its leader, Ma Yuanzhang, was well-read, proficient in both Islamic scriptures and Chinese classics, and adopted the ideas of Liu Jielian to interpret Islam through Confucianism. After the Shigu Road Mosque was built, Fan Yuncai and Zhan Fengxiang from the Beishan menhuan served as imams. Imam Fan Yuncai was from Siyang, Jiangsu. During the Republic of China era, his son Fan Zhaofa opened the Faji Carriage Company in Nanjing, which was very successful. In 1905, Wu Wenlian, the grandson of Nanjing's Wu Defa, went to Gansu to study scriptures. After completing his studies in 1911, he was appointed by Ma Yuanzhang to serve as the imam of the Shigu Road Mosque.

After the Beishan order leader Ma Yuanzhang passed away (guizhen) in 1920, his nephew Ma Dianwu took over the religious affairs. It was still called the Beishan menhuan, overseeing over 100 mosques in places like Zhangjiachuan, Tianshui, and Longnan in Gansu, Qiqihar in Heilongjiang, Runan in Henan, and Long County in Shaanxi. Nanjing's Shigu Road was its only mosque in East China.

In 1937, Ma Dianwu appointed Imam Su Ziying from Zhangjiachuan, Gansu, to serve as the imam of the Shigu Road Mosque. Imam Su actively visited other mosques, connected with community elders, and promoted education, which helped the Shigu Road Mosque flourish and trained more than 20 students (hailifa). In 1953, Imam Yang Junwen succeeded as the imam of the Shigu Road Mosque. In 1958, the Shigu Road Mosque closed, and Imam Yang Junwen became an imam at the Fengfu Road Mosque. After that, Imam Yang no longer maintained contact with the Beishan menhuan, and his worship practices gradually merged with the Gedimu order.

In 1986, the Shigu Road Mosque was demolished due to road widening. Although the mosque closed, some descendants of the Nanjing Jahriyya followers still held firmly to their worship. For example, Fan Songshou, a descendant of Imam Fan Wencai, made a living running a tofu shop. Even in his nineties, he insisted on performing the five daily prayers (namaz) without fail. In his old age, he still insisted on fasting (zhai), and in the 1960s, he continued to volunteer to wash and bury the deceased and help with funeral arrangements.



Plaque inscriptions at Jingjue Mosque:

Only pure, only one: Erected on an auspicious day in the first month of summer in the Gengyin year, the 16th year of the Guangxu reign of the Great Qing Dynasty, by the Commander of the Jiujiang Garrison in Jiangxi.



Rectify the heart and be sincere: Erected in June of the 11th year of the Republic of China by members of the Nanjing Islamic Association.



The stele from the 47th year of the Qianlong reign records the four boundaries of Jingjue Mosque. To the east, there was a shop for rent, and to the west, a shop in Maxiang Alley was rented out as a flower shop. The elders who donated funds included those with the surnames Chen, Ma, Wu, Jin, Zheng, and Sha.



The stele from the 18th year of the Guangxu reign records that Imam Ma donated his own land next to the mosque to build the main prayer hall and the water room (wudu area).





Jingjue Mosque houses a memorial stele for Ma Yitang, a Hui Muslim merchant from Nanjing who worked in Shanghai. It was inscribed in 1931 by Ma Fuxiang, a famous Beiyang general who was then the Chairman of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission.

Ma Yitang was born in 1869. His ancestors ran a money shop outside Jubao Gate in Nanjing, and the family owned the Ma Yulong Satin and Fan Shop. With Shanghai as his base, Ma Yitang expanded his business to include domestic and foreign general merchandise. He set up branches in Chengdu and Chongqing, and his goods were sold as far away as the Tibetan regions. Ma Yitang was devoted to the faith. He served as a director for the North Mosque and West Mosque in Shanghai and helped fund the founding of the Hanximen Girls' School and the Zhuganxiang Girls' School in Nanjing. In 1909, Ma Yitang became a special consultative director for the Shanghai Islamic Board of Directors, participating in all its decisions. In 1921, he was responsible for the expansion of the Shanghai Xiaoshadu Mosque (now the Huxi Mosque).



Jingjue Mosque houses a notice stele from the 15th year of the Republic of China regarding the Shangfuqiao Mosque, issued by the Western District Police Station of the Jiangsu Provincial Capital Police Department. It records that the police stepped in to protect the Shangfuqiao Mosque and the Dajiaoxiang Mosque to uphold the rights of the faith. The petitioners included Hui Muslims with the surnames Bai, Tao, Pu, Ma, Yuan, Liang, Wei, and Jin.

Shangfuqiao Mosque was located in Chuanban Alley and was first built in 1662 (the first year of the Kangxi reign). It was destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion in the Xianfeng era and rebuilt in 1876 (the second year of the Guangxu reign). Later, it was occupied by Nanjing No. 62 Middle School, and the notice stele was moved into Jingjue Mosque. Dajiaoxiang Mosque was first built in 1874 (the 13th year of the Tongzhi reign). The mosque once housed trade associations for the pavilion decoration, wedding, and fried rice industries. It was later occupied by a factory and eventually demolished.



Jingjue Mosque houses a Qing Dynasty stone carving from the Neiqiaowan Mosque, which was rescued from under an excavator during the demolition of Neiqiaowan in 2019.

Neiqiaowan Mosque was located on Zhongshan South Road. One account says it was first built in 1645 (the second year of the Shunzhi reign), while another says it was built in 1662 (the first year of the Kangxi reign). In 1898 (the 24th year of the Guangxu reign), Shi Jialiang bought a group of houses in Neiqiaowan to rebuild the main prayer hall. The Shi family came from Wuwei, Gansu. They moved to Nanjing during the Jiaqing reign of the Qing Dynasty to expand the silk trade. They later became a famous silk-trading family in Nanjing and founded the Shijuxing Silk Firm during the Daoguang reign. The Shi family moved to Shanghai during the Guangxu reign and were members of the Shanghai mosque board of directors.

Neiqiaowan Mosque once housed a primary school and the Glutinous Rice Food Industry Guild. It was demolished in 1991 to widen the road.

















The former Taiping Road Mosque.

Because the Jiangsu Hotel expanded to Taiping Road, the main hall and opposite hall of the Taiping Road Mosque were moved 40 meters south of the old Caoqiao Mosque in 2003. The project was completed in 2005.

Taiping Road Mosque was originally called Huapailou Mosque. Legend says it was built by Chang Yuchun in the early Ming Dynasty. It was destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion and later rebuilt with funds raised by elders from the Ha, Ma, Zheng, Yang, Ding, and Chang families. Ma Jingtao led its renovation during the Tongzhi reign. In 1924, wealthy Nanjing merchants and brothers Jiang Muzhou and Jiang Sukan (Guobang) donated money to rebuild a new mosque on the south side, which was still called Huapailou Mosque. When the road was widened in 1931, the gate tower was demolished. Huapailou was renamed Taiping Road, and Huapailou Mosque was renamed Taiping Road Mosque.

After the victory in the War of Resistance in 1945, the Jiang family of Jinling funded the renovation of the main hall and built the Jiang Family Shouxuan Hall in the north courtyard. That same year, the China Islamic National Salvation Association moved into Taiping Road Mosque and changed its name to the China Islamic Association. Its first chairman was Bai Chongxi. It was the highest Islamic organization in the country at the time until it moved to Taipei in 1949. After the 1960s, the Taiping Road Mosque was occupied. It was reclaimed in 1978, reopened in 1980, and named a municipal cultural relic protection unit in 1982. It was demolished in 2003, and the components of the main hall and opposite hall were moved to a new site.

Because the daily expenses of Taiping Road Mosque were paid by the wealthy Jiang family of Jinling, it was the richest mosque in Nanjing during the Republic of China era. The Jiang family of Jinling originally came from Yuncao Ancient Town in Hanshan County, Anhui. They moved to Nanjing in 1808 (the 13th year of Jiaqing). They started as small vendors and later expanded into the silk, salt, and pawn industries. During the Guangxu reign, they opened branches in major commercial ports and became a wealthy merchant family.



















The opposite hall of the former Taiping Road Mosque served as the office for the chairman of the China Islamic Association between 1945 and 1949, where Bai Chongxi once worked.

















The brick carving of 'Washing the Heart and Looking at the Palace' (xixin zhanque) from the water room of the former Taiping Road Mosque.



The former Taiping Road Mosque collected the 'Postscript to the Mother's Filial Piety Arch' written by Jiang Guobang. It records that the father of the wealthy Nanjing merchant Jiang Guobang lost his own father early and was raised by his mother, Madam Ma. In 1911 (the third year of the Xuantong reign), he petitioned to build a memorial arch for his mother's filial piety. Due to the change in government, it was finally completed in 1914.

Jiang Guobang came from the wealthy Jiang merchant family of Jinling, but he cared little for fame or wealth and dedicated himself to the study of traditional Chinese culture. Jiang Guobang was very filial. To provide his mother with a good place to spend her later years, he spent a large sum of money to buy the Xiaowanliu Hall by West Lake in Hangzhou. He later named it Jiang Manor (Jiangzhuang), which was one of the three major manors on West Lake at that time. In 1924, Jiang Guobang oversaw the reconstruction of Taiping Road Mosque and later built the memorial arch for his mother's filial piety inside the mosque. The arch no longer exists today, and only the stone tablet record remains.







The well railing from the Qing Dynasty and a stone tablet from the Guangxu reign at Caoqiao Mosque. Caoqiao Mosque was first built during the Guangxu reign of the Qing Dynasty. It was destroyed by fire during the Taiping Rebellion and rebuilt in the early years of the Tongzhi reign. Because it was located in Qijiawan, a neighborhood where Hui Muslims lived, Caoqiao Mosque once had the largest number of congregants in Nanjing. Historically, Caoqiao Mosque had no property of its own. Its daily expenses were covered by the Beef and Leather Trade Association, which was based inside the mosque. After 1958, Caoqiao Mosque was occupied and later rented to the Nanjing Woodworking Factory, which caused serious damage. The mosque property was returned in 1985 but never reopened, and it was demolished in 2003.







The Jiang Family Courtyard in Laomendong.

In the Laomendong scenic area of Nanjing, there is a residence called Jishan Hall belonging to the wealthy Hui Muslim merchant family, the Jiangs of Jinling. It is currently located at 18 and 20 Santiaoying. The residence was open for visits before, but unfortunately, it was closed when we went.

The Jiang family of Jinling originally came from Yuncao, an ancient town in Hanshan County, Anhui. They moved to Nanjing in 1808 (the 13th year of the Jiaqing reign) and started out as small vendors. After the Taiping Rebellion was suppressed in 1864 (the third year of the Tongzhi reign), the Jiang family used sailboats to transport salt from the Lianghuai salt fields to the Yangtze River coast. On their return trips, they brought back large quantities of daily necessities, which helped them build their fortune. Later, they opened the Chunshengjian firm to trade in satin, and their reputation spread throughout the southwestern provinces.

Jiang Shoushan, also known as Changcheng, was a key figure of the Jinling Jiang family in the late Qing Dynasty. He owned the Deda Soy Sauce Shop in Nanjing, the Guangda Oil Mill in Liuhe, and the Chunyuan Oil Firm in Hankou. In 1875 (the first year of the Guangxu reign), the government named his residence Jishantang (Hall of Accumulated Goodness) and the street outside Jishanli (Alley of Accumulated Goodness) to honor his charity work, which included building bridges, paving roads, giving porridge to the poor, and helping those in need.

Beyond his business success, the Jiang family was also very devoted to their faith. Jiang Shoushan's father, Jiang Hanchen, wrote in the preface to the religious book 'Guizhen Yaodao' (Essential Path to Returning to the Truth), which he edited for his fourth son Jiang Changsong: 'Building wealth from nothing through business is all due to the grace of Allah.' During the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, the Jiang family made significant contributions to the faith. They led the construction of the Wuxi Mosque and the Xixin Pavilion at the Huashen Mosque in Nanjing, rebuilt the Huapailou (Taiping Road) Mosque in Nanjing, expanded the Taipingfang Mosque in Suzhou, renovated the Hanximen Mosque and Jingjue Mosque in Nanjing and the Jinshifang Street Mosque in Beijing, and also established a charity school in the southern suburbs of Nanjing.













Xiaowangfu Lane Mosque

The Xiaowangfu Lane Mosque was built in the late Tongzhi reign of the Qing Dynasty. It is one of the few remaining old buildings among the 33 traditional Hui Muslim neighborhoods in Nanjing. The mihrab (the niche in the wall indicating the direction of Mecca) currently in the Jingjue Mosque was moved here from the Xiaowangfu Lane Mosque. The Xiaowangfu Lane Mosque was used as a residential area for a long time, but it has now been vacated and may soon have a new purpose.

In 1917, the Xiaowangfu Lane Mosque founded the private Wuben Primary School to teach both general subjects and religious knowledge. It moved to the entrance of Xiaowangfu Lane on Fengfu Road in 1953 and became a public school in 1956.



















Anleyuan

Every time I visit Nanjing, I make sure to have morning tea at Anleyuan. The morning tea used to be served in the main dining room, but it has moved to the hot pot hall on the right. The menu, however, remains the same.

We arrived after ten o'clock, and it wasn't very crowded. We ordered roast duck with dried tofu strips (ya gan si), shark fin golden cake, crystal shrimp dumplings, red bean soup with rice balls (chidou yuanxiao), water shield vegetable steamed dumplings (jiao'ercai zhengjiao), duck and pine nut steamed dumplings (shaomai), beef spring rolls, and crispy fried dough (sanzi) with tofu pudding, all paired with Yuhua tea. Anleyuan is a great place to experience the charm of Jinling's Hui Muslim cuisine, especially if you are dining with a group.

Anleyuan was founded in 1920 by Cai Jiheng, a Hui Muslim from Nanjing. Originally called Anleju Restaurant, it has been in business for 105 years. Anleyuan was first located at 64 Pingshi Street (formerly Shuixiangkou) in the Hui Muslim community of Qijiawan. It later moved to the Jiangxi Guild Hall at 19 Pingshi Street, specializing in snacks like sweet red bean paste buns and assorted vegetable buns.

In 1949, owner Cai Jiheng was getting old, so he handed the restaurant over to his son, Cai Yuting. Cai Yuting was a scholar by trade and did not know how to run a business, so the restaurant's sales began to decline. In 1952, Li Fuquan, who ran a restaurant at Chaotian Palace, bought the Anleju Restaurant and renamed it Anleyuan Restaurant. Owner Li introduced signature braised dishes like salt-water duck (yanshui ya), sliced dried beef (ganqie niurou), braised wheat gluten (lu mianjin), and smoked fish (xunyu), which won high praise from customers.

In 1956, during the public-private partnership period, Anleyuan merged with the state-owned Heping Canteen and moved to Shengzhou Road, west of Qijiawan. It grew from a small eatery into a medium-sized restaurant of 400 square meters with 14 tables, gaining a steady base of diners. In 1961, Anleyuan moved again to Mochou Road near Chaotian Palace. The space expanded further, and they introduced new dishes like braised fish maw with three delicacies (sanxian hui yudu) and crispy beef (xiangsu niurou), entering the ranks of high-end restaurants. In 1966, Anleyuan was renamed Victory Restaurant (Shengli Fandian), but it changed back to its original name in 1972. In 2001, due to the development of the Chaotian Palace South Square, Anleyuan was relocated to its current site on Wangfu Street. The new shop expanded to 2,000 square meters, becoming a large restaurant with three separate areas for snacks, main meals, and hot pot.























Li Rongxing

At noon, we went to the old Hui Muslim brand Li Rongxing on Xufu Lane in Nanjing for lunch. I ate at their original shop ten years ago, and this time I found they have opened chain stores, including a branch here in the north of the city.

We ordered beef potstickers (niurou guotie), beef wontons (niurou huntun), beef vermicelli soup (niurou fensi tang), smoked fish noodles (xunyu mian), beef soup dumplings (niurou guantangbao), and assorted vegetables (su shijin), which are all considered typical Nanjing Hui Muslim specialties. The snacks of Nanjing Hui Muslims are characterized by a hint of sweetness. I find this quite unique, but people from the north might not be used to it.

Li Rongxing is a famous old brand from Qijiawan, founded by Li Houming in 1914. It started at the T-junction of Qijiawan and Ganyu Lane, and was best known for its pan-fried beef buns (niurou jianbao), beef soup, and smoked beef. In 2002, Li Rongxing's third-generation successor, Li Bangzheng, opened a Li Rongxing on Fenghuang West Street, and in 2006, it moved to Nanhu East Road. The current owner, Li Guofan, is the fourth-generation successor of Li Rongxing. Additionally, the most famous Li's Restaurant (Liji) in Qijiawan today is run by Li Bangzheng's cousin, Li Bangjie, who once worked with him at a salted duck factory.





















Lvliuju

Next to Li Rongxing on Xufu Lane is another long-standing shop, Lvliuju. Their shop is quite small. Besides their most popular green sticky rice balls (qingtuan), they serve simple meals like duck blood vermicelli soup (laoya fensi tang), bamboo shoot and beef brisket rice (sungand niunan fan), braised three-delicacy rice (hui sanxian fan), and smoked fish assorted noodles (xunyu shijin mian). We bought some of their signature three-colored cakes (sanse gao).

Lvliuju was founded in 1912 at Taoye Ferry by the Qinhuai River. It started as a high-end vegetarian restaurant, and people like Kong Xiangxi, Chiang Ching-kuo, Bai Chongxi, and the Soong sisters often ate there. After 1949, Lvliuju closed for a time. It reopened in 1963 on Taiping South Road at Yanggongjing, hiring the famous chef Chen Bingyu to lead the kitchen and continue serving authentic vegetarian food. A major feature of Lvliuju is making vegetarian dishes taste like meat. Their vegetarian chicken (suji) and vegetarian duck (suya), made from tofu skin, gluten, and dried bean curd sticks with herbal seasonings, are delicious. In 1987, Lvliuju added halal dishes to its vegetarian menu and became a halal restaurant, though it still specializes in vegetarian food. It is now a national-level intangible cultural heritage.





















Liuhe South Gate Mosque

Leaving the Nanjing city area, we crossed the Yangtze River and headed north to Liuhe District, where we performed namaz at the Liuhe South Gate Mosque.

There were once seven mosques and three women's schools in Liuhe. Today, the Changjiang Road Mosque, South Gate Mosque, and Zhuzhen Mosque are open, and the historic buildings of the South Gate Women's School and Zhuzhen Women's School remain.

The Liuhe South Gate Mosque was first built in 1403 (the first year of the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty) and rebuilt in 1553 (the 32nd year of the Jiajing reign). It was destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion and later rebuilt. The famous Imam Da Pusheng, one of the four great imams of the Republic of China, had three generations of his family—from his great-grandfather to his father—serve as the imam at South Gate Mosque. The old Da family home is on the Halal Street (Qingzhen Jie) right at the mosque entrance. Imam Da Pusheng studied the scriptures at South Gate Mosque for seven years, from age 10 to 17, before going to Nanjing and Beijing for further study.

The ancestor of the Da family of the Baiye Hall, where Imam Da Pusheng belonged, was Mubalesha from the Western Regions during the Yuan Dynasty. Research shows he belonged to the Kipchak Yuliberi tribe and served as a Darughachi in Zhenjiang before passing away in Zhenjiang. His sixth-generation descendant, Da Shan, moved from Zhenjiang to Liuhe in the early Ming Dynasty to serve as a county magistrate candidate. He settled in Liuhe, making them the oldest Hui Muslim family from the Western Regions in the area.

After 1966, the South Gate Mosque was used as a kindergarten. During that time, the Shamao Hall (duiting), the north wing, the red gate, and the entrance hall were demolished. The kindergarten moved out in 1975, and Baozhen Primary School borrowed the space for a while. It was finally reclaimed in 2000 after the school moved out. The main hall was raised and rebuilt in 2013. Later, the Unity Pagoda (Tongxin Ta) and Tongxing Building were built, and the site finally opened to the public in 2020. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: The second part of the Nanjing mosque journey follows sites in the old south city, Liuhe, and Zhuzhen, with notes on mosque buildings, stone carvings, and local Hui Muslim history. This account keeps the original route, mosque names, dates, and photographs.















Stone carvings and ancient trees at the South Gate Mosque in Liuhe:

A stone tablet from the seventh year of the Daoguang reign recording a donation of property by a Hui Muslim named Li.



A boundary marker for the mosque.



A stone tablet from the twelfth year of the Guangxu reign. It records that the South Gate Mosque was destroyed by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom during the Xianfeng years. Many Hui Muslim militia members from the mosque died in battle, and the government later stepped in to protect their graves.



A couplet written by Wang Jianli in the tenth year of the Republic of China: To cherish purity and walk in cleanliness is to prepare for the afterlife; to return to the truth and simplicity is to be just like this.



Qing dynasty drum-shaped stone bases (baogushi) in front of the main gate.





A 460-year-old Chinese juniper (yuanbai) in front of the main prayer hall, classified as a first-grade protected ancient tree.





Liuhe Women's School.

The Liuhe Muslim Women's School started in 1912. The current building was constructed in 1930 and later used as a Hui Muslim funeral home. It is a rare surviving example of a Republican-era Muslim women's school and mosque.

Traditionally, these women's schools do not form formal classes, do not call the adhan, do not hold Jumu'ah prayers, and do not hold Eid prayers. The female imam (shiniang) does not lead the prayer from the front but stands in the middle of the first row. The women's school does not have a minaret, and there is no minbar pulpit inside the main prayer hall. Besides leading the local women in their religious duties, the female imam (shiniang) also teaches various aspects of Islamic knowledge.

Women's schools emerged during the mid-to-late Qing dynasty, initially concentrated in Henan and the neighboring areas of Hebei, Shandong, and Anhui. In the early Republic of China, influenced by the New Culture Movement and the women's liberation movement, the ideas of promoting women's education, ending foot binding, and liberating women began to be understood by Hui Muslims. The number of women's schools increased rapidly, with over a hundred in Henan province alone, and others were built in various provinces.

During the Guangxu reign of the Qing dynasty, two women's schools were built in Nanjing at Hanximen and Changle Street. During the Republican era, four more were built at Fangjia Lane, Zhuganli, Shigu Road, and Dahuifu Lane, but all of these have been demolished. In the early Republican era, Liuhe built three women's schools at Houjie inside the city, outside the South Gate, and in Zhuzhen. The historical buildings at the South Gate and Zhuzhen are the only ones that remain.













Changjiang Road Mosque in Liuhe.

After leaving the South Gate Mosque in Liuhe, we went to the Changjiang Road Mosque in Liuhe to perform the prayer (namaz). The mosque has two imams, one middle-aged and one young. The young imam is from Zhenjiang and just graduated from an Islamic school (zhongjing). He is a very rare and talented young man.

The Changjiang Road Mosque was originally called Chengqingfang. It is also known as the Liuhe North Mosque, the Inner City Mosque, and the Da Family Mosque. It was built in 1424 (the 22nd year of the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty) by the Da family of Baiyetang, who had lived in Liuhe for generations. The Changjiang Road Mosque was destroyed by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom during the Xianfeng reign. Later, the leader Liu Weiting and local elders raised funds to rebuild it. In 1885 (the 11th year of the Guangxu reign), Da Guangyong donated money to build a reception hall. In 1928, Wang Dashi, the widow of the wealthy merchant Wang Zuochen and aunt of the great imam Da Pusheng, donated money to build the Wuxin Pavilion on the original site of the Moon-Watching Tower (Wangyuelou).

In 1899, the great imam Da Pusheng returned to his hometown of Liuhe from the Niujie Mosque in Beijing to serve as the imam of the Changjiang Road Mosque. It was not until 1905, when Imam Wang Kuan from Niujie went on the pilgrimage (hajj), that Imam Da returned to the Niujie Mosque to serve as the acting imam and lead religious affairs. Imam Da founded the Guangyi Primary School inside the Changjiang Road Mosque to promote modern education. He offered courses in Chinese and Arabic, scripture, geography, history, and mathematics. This pioneered the transition from traditional scripture hall teaching to modern education. In a memoir from the early 1950s, Imam Da wrote: 'I worked hard for six years. Perhaps moved by the achievements of Guangyi Primary School, the local Hui Muslims supported the school with great effort... Looking back now, how difficult it was to struggle at that time, to patiently persuade stubborn traditionalists, and to take on responsibilities despite everything without being denounced as anti-religious!'

After 1966, the Changjiang Road Mosque was occupied by a theater troupe and a cultural troupe. It was reclaimed and reopened in 1983.



















Existing stone tablets at the Liuhe Changjiang Road Mosque:





The 1885 (11th year of the Guangxu reign) tablet records that Da Guangyong funded the construction of the reception hall at the Inner City Mosque in Liuhe. Da Guangyong was the 18th-generation descendant of the Baiyetang Da family. He held the rank of ninth-grade official and lived to be 81.



The 1899 (25th year of the Guangxu reign) tablet, titled 'Tablet on the Renovation of the Tangyi Inner City Mosque and the Market Houses Inside and Outside the Mosque,' records the specific situation of the Changjiang Road Mosque during the Guangxu reign. All the signatories were local Hui Muslims from the Da family.



The 1928 (17th year of the Republic of China) tablet, titled 'Tablet on Wang Dashi's Donation to Repair the Moon-Watching Pavilion and Redeem Market Houses,' records that Dashi, the wife of the Zhuzhen elder Wang Zuochen, donated money to build the Moon-Watching Pavilion (Wangyue Ting). Wang Zuochen was a Hui Muslim from Zhuzhen in Liuhe. He ran a grain business on North Street in Zhuzhen for decades. He was very devout, never missing his daily namaz or fasting, but in 1925, bandits suddenly kidnapped him, and he was never heard from again. Wang Zuochen's wife, surnamed Da, was also very devout and founded the Zhuzhen Girls' School. After her husband went missing, Mrs. Da spent years asking people to help find him, but there was no result. Because Wang Zuochen had no brothers or children, Mrs. Da donated all the family's money to the Zhuzhen mosque and to build the Moon-Watching Pavilion (wangyueting) at the Changjiang Road mosque.





Inside the mosque, there is also a 350-year-old Chinese juniper (yuanbai) tree.







Zhuzhen Mosque

Continuing north from Liuhe, we arrived at Zhuzhen, the northernmost town in Nanjing.

The Zhuzhen mosque was originally located outside East Bridge. It was destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion and rebuilt in 1901 (the 27th year of the Guangxu reign) in Wang Family Lane in the middle of the old street. In 1968, the Zhuzhen mosque was turned into a dormitory for teachers at an agricultural middle school. It was reclaimed and reopened in 1983, and the main hall was rebuilt in 2001.

In 1939, the imam of Zhuzhen mosque, Li Shudu, formed the Hui Muslim Anti-Japanese Independent Guerrilla Battalion and served as its commander. He worked with the New Fourth Army and made significant contributions to the anti-Japanese cause.

Additionally, in 1939, Hui Muslims from the Bridge Group (qiaobang) in the Gaoyou and Lingtang areas built a mosque near Xinhua Garden on the west side of Zhuzhen. After 1966, it was converted into a Hui Muslim food processing factory.





The Zhuzhen mosque still has a door lintel from the Qing Dynasty's Guangxu period inscribed with the words 'Built by the Zhudun Community.' Zhudun is the old name for Zhuzhen.















The Zhuzhen mosque in Liuhe houses a Qing Dynasty stone well called 'Pine Spring' (songquan), two pairs of drum-shaped stone bases (baogushi), and a stele from the 16th year of the Republic of China (1927) recording the will of Wang Zuochen's wife, Mrs. Da, who donated her property. Mrs. Da was the aunt of the great imam Da Pusheng. The inscription records that the Zhuzhen Girls' School was founded by Wang Zuochen and fellow members of the faith, with funding provided by Wang Zuochen and his fellow believers. Later, Wang Zuochen was kidnapped by bandits and remained missing for years. Because of this, Wang Zuochen's wife, Mrs. Da, decided to donate all their farmland and property, except for a portion kept for her own support. The funds were mainly used for the daily expenses of the Zhuzhen Girls' School, with the remainder going to the Zhuzhen mosque. The inscription mentions her 'nephew Da Pusheng'.







Across from the Zhuzhen Mosque, there is a shop selling small-mill sesame oil (xiaomo mayou), and the only restaurants in town serve hand-pulled noodles (lamian).









Liuhe Muslim Women's School

After leaving the Zhuzhen Mosque, I walked through the old street of Zhuzhen and arrived at the Zhuzhen Women's School by the river. The Zhuzhen Women's School is a classic example of Jianghuai architectural style, featuring a small courtyard formed by the entrance hall and the main hall, with traditional Huizhou-style horse-head walls on both sides.

The Zhuzhen Women's School was founded in 1921 by Wang Zuochen, the uncle-in-law of the great imam Da Pusheng, along with other local Hui Muslims. It was originally located on Zhuzhen Middle Street, but in 1931, Wu Tiejian and others rebuilt it along the south riverbank outside the East Bridge of Zhuzhen. After 1966, the school was occupied by a Hui Muslim food processing factory. It was renovated in 2007 but is currently not open to the public. During the Republic of China era, the school was led by two female imams, Mistress Dai and Mistress Bai, who taught scriptures and religious doctrines to local Hui Muslim women.

Wu Tiejian was a famous Hui Muslim businessman and patriot who resisted the Japanese. His original name was Wu Jiashan, and at age 22, he inherited his father's business, the Wudeyuan Grain Store. After the New Fourth Army entered Zhuzhen in 1938 to lead the resistance against Japan, Wu Tiejian was the first to donate grain, money, and guns, and he served as the chairman of the Zhuzhen Merchants and Citizens Anti-Enemy Association. In 1942, Wu Tiejian became the first mayor of the Zhuzhen Anti-Japanese Democratic Government. He took great risks to rescue and protect many comrades and also mobilized ambitious young people to join the revolution. After the founding of New China, Wu Tiejian was elected deputy director of the Nanjing Islamic Association, and he passed away (guizhen) in 1967.



















There is a square next to the mosque that introduces famous Hui Muslim figures from Liuhe. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: The early capital of the Crimean Khanate is covered through palace sites, mosques, old streets, and Crimean Tatar history. This account keeps the original historical context, place names, architectural details, food notes, and photographs.

The Crimean Peninsula is in the northern Black Sea. It was conquered by the Mongol army in 1238 and later ruled by the Golden Horde. In 1313, Khan Uzbeg officially made Islam the state religion and built mosques (masjid) on the Crimean Peninsula.

At first, the Golden Horde's capital in Crimea was the city of Old Crimea (Stary Krym) in the southeast of the peninsula. In 1441, Haji Giray, a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi, minted coins with his own name at the Jewish Fortress (Chufut-Kale) on a cliff in the southwest of the peninsula, officially establishing the Crimean Khanate. The Jewish Fortress was first built by the Byzantines in the 5th to 6th centuries, and was later inhabited by Alans, Tatars, and Karaites. Today, the fortress still has city walls, gates, mosque ruins, and the tomb of a Golden Horde princess.

After Haji Giray died in 1466, his sixth son, Mengli Giray, eventually won the struggle for the throne. Around 1500, Mengli Giray built a new capital called Salachik. Salachik once had a complex of buildings including a palace, court, baths, and a mosque, but now only a madrasa and the tomb of the founding Crimean Khan, Haji Giray, remain.

Also, to the west of Bakhchysarai is Eski Yurt, a large trading town that was very prosperous during the Golden Horde period. It became a religious center for Crimea because of the gongbei of the religious elder Malik Ashtar. Today, it preserves several 14th to 16th-century tombs, including that of the Crimean Khan Mehmed II Giray.

Jewish Fortress (Chufut-Kale)

Between the 13th and 17th centuries, the Jewish Fortress was called Kyrk-Or, which means forty fortresses. After the mid-16th century, the Crimean Khan Sahib Giray (reigned 1532-1551) moved the capital to Bakhchysarai in the valley west of the Jewish Fortress, and the Tatars in the fortress gradually moved to Bakhchysarai. After the wells in the fortress dried up in the mid-17th century, all the Tatars left. Only the Karaite Jews continued to live there, and the fortress was gradually called the Jewish Fortress by the Crimean Tatars. After the 19th century, the Karaite Jews also left, and the fortress eventually became a ruin.

The walls of the Jewish Fortress were first built during the Byzantine period; some say they were built in the 5th to 6th centuries, while others say the 10th to 11th centuries. In 1299, General Nogai Khan of the Golden Horde led a Tatar army to attack the Crimean Peninsula. Byzantine soldiers used the strong walls of the Jewish fortress to hold off the Golden Horde's attack. The Tatar soldiers reportedly played harsh, loud music for three days and nights to disturb the Byzantine defenders inside the city. On the fourth day, the exhausted Byzantine defenders could no longer hold off a new round of attacks, and the Jewish fortress was captured by the Tatars of the Golden Horde.

Currently, the original walls consist of two sections, the south wall and the middle wall, along with two gates, the south gate and the middle gate. The south wall is built on the cliff in the southern part of the fortress, weaving between the rocks. The south gate is built in a pocket shape, allowing defenders to surround enemies from above if they break in. The middle wall runs across the space between the north and south cliffs of the fortress and is a typical example of Byzantine wall architecture.





There is no wall on the north cliff, but the steepness of the cliff itself is as effective as a wall. It was very windy when I visited, and I felt nervous just standing by the cliff edge.





The east wall was built between 1396 and 1433, and there is a lively bazaar outside the gate. Outside the east gate, there is still a preserved water collection area that merchants used to wash and water their livestock.







The Khan Jani Beg mosque is located on the west side of the Jewish fortress. It was first built in 1346 during the reign of Khan Jani Beg (reigned 1342-1357) of the Golden Horde. Khan Jani Beg was the son of Öz Beg Khan. During his father's reign, the Golden Horde fully converted to the faith, and Khan Jani Beg continued to develop the faith within the Khanate. The Khan Jani Beg mosque in the Jewish fortress stands as a witness to this.

In 1455, Haji Giray, the founding Khan of the Crimean Khanate, rebuilt the Khan Jani Beg mosque. An inscription about the reconstruction was once carved above the mosque door and was discovered during an archaeological excavation in 1928.

After the mid-17th century, the mosque was eventually abandoned as the Crimean Tatars moved from the Jewish fortress to Bakhchisaray. Today, only ruined walls, a mihrab niche, and some stone carvings remain at the mosque site. From these existing ruins, we can infer that it was a fairly typical traditional Crimean mosque building.





The tomb of Golden Horde Princess Dzhanike Khanym was built in 1437. It is the best-preserved Islamic building inside the Jewish fortress. The princess was the daughter of Tokhtamysh (reigned 1380-1397), the Great Khan of the Golden Horde. Tokhtamysh was the last Great Khan to unite the Golden Horde, but he was eventually defeated by Tamerlane the Great. After Tokhtamysh passed away, Dzhanike Khanym returned to her mother's homeland, Crimea.

The tomb is octagonal. The door is decorated with a classic Seljuk knot, a signature pattern from the Golden Horde period.







The roads inside the fortress vary in width, and you can see deep cart ruts on the main path.







The Tatar people gradually left the city after the water wells dried up in the 17th century.



The Gazi Mansur gongbei (shrine) and daotang (religious hall) are located in the valley on the west side of the Jewish fortress.

Legend says that Malik Ashter and Gazi Mansur, two of the first disciples of the Prophet Muhammad, came to the Crimean Peninsula in the 7th century to spread the faith and lived in a valley at the foot of the Jewish fortress. Not long after, Malik Ashter was killed by a giant, and Gazi Mansur died defending the Jewish fortress. They were both buried at the foot of the mountain. They remained unknown for a long time until, centuries later, a sheikh living in the ancient Central Asian city of Bukhara repeatedly dreamed of a narrow valley filled with shrubs. To understand his dream, the sheikh followed the guidance of an elder and began a pilgrimage to the Crimean Peninsula.

The sheikh arrived in Crimea in 1434. He recognized the valley from his dream at the foot of the Jewish cave and eventually discovered the tomb of Gazi Mansur. The sheikh then built a gongbei and a daotang at the site of the tomb. Because of this legendary karamat (miracle), pilgrims flocked to the site, and it even gained the favor of the Crimean Khan.

The Gazi Mansur gongbei and daotang stood until the 1930s, but were destroyed during the Soviet era. Today, only broken walls and a few surviving tombstones remain.











Salachik

The Salachik (Salaçıq) historical and archaeological complex was built between the late 15th and early 16th centuries and served as one of the capitals of the Crimean Khanate.

After Haji Giray died in 1466, his sixth son, Mengli I Giray, and his second son, Nur Devlet, fought repeatedly for the throne until Mengli I Giray finally won. Around 1500, Mengli I Giray built the new capital of Salachik in the valley west of the Jewish fortress.

In the 17th century, Salachik included a palace, a high court, baths, the Mengli Giray Mosque, and guard rooms. Genoese records mention that it also had a customs house, but most of these buildings were likely destroyed in an earthquake in 1698.

Today, only the Chain (Zıncırlı) madrasa, built in 1500, and the Haji Giray mausoleum, built in 1501, remain. The madrasa stayed open until the early 20th century. Archaeological excavations in 2008 uncovered the ruins of the baths and identified the general location of the Mengli Giray Mosque.

The Haji Giray mausoleum (Dürbe Hacı I Giray) is an octagonal building with a lead dome, built in 1501 by Mengli I Giray for his father, the founding Khan of Crimea, Haji Giray.

Archaeological digs between 2006 and 2007 examined 18 graves inside the mausoleum, including 13 adults and 5 children. They were wrapped in silk, and some rested on pillows stuffed with fabric scraps and fruit seeds. The mausoleum contains 8 stone sarcophagi covered in velvet, silk, and silver-threaded fabric. These likely include four Crimean Khans: Haji Giray himself, Mengli I Giray, Haji Giray's other son Nur Devlet—who fought Mengli I Giray for the throne for years before losing—and Sahib I Giray, the son of Mengli I Giray and the builder of Bakhchisaray.

These individuals were reburied after research was completed in 2009.







The Chain (Zıncırlı) madrasa was built in 1500 by order of the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray. The name of the madrasa comes from the Turkic word "zyngyr," which means chain. A chain hangs above the main gate of the madrasa, forcing everyone who enters to bow their head.

The madrasa is rectangular with a central courtyard, an entrance on one side, and 11 rooms on the other three sides. At the time, the madrasa taught Turkish and Arabic grammar, calligraphy, arithmetic, ethics, logic, proof, Islamic law (sharia), and the study of the Quran and Hadith, with the full course of study taking ten years.





In 1909, influenced by the Crimean Tatar enlightenment movement, Gaspirali built a two-story modern Islamic school (madrasa) next to the old one. The school closed in 1917 and became the Mengli Giray Research Institute. The institute was shut down in 1923, then it served as a teacher training college, a medical school, a sanatorium for German soldiers, and a post-war psychiatric clinic. Today, the site is managed by the Bakhchisaray Historical, Cultural and Archaeological Museum.



During excavations at the Salachik historical and archaeological complex in 2008, researchers found 15th-century urban ruins including a bathhouse, a well, and a courtyard.

The bathhouse is a typical Turkish bath (hamam) with separate sections for men and women, each containing five rooms and a heating system. The heating system used clay pipes in the walls and under the floors to circulate warm air, keeping the bath at a constant temperature year-round and saving firewood. Each section also included a steam room, a washing area, a toilet, a lounge, and a changing room.

Archaeologists found many ceramics from the 15th to 18th centuries, mostly architectural tiles and pipes, along with some kitchenware, Turkish pottery, Chinese porcelain, and silver coins from the Crimean Khanate.



Ismail Gaspirali (1851-1914), the founder of the Crimean Tatar enlightenment movement, is buried in the backyard of the Zincirli Madrasa.

Gaspirali was a Crimean Tatar intellectual, educator, and publisher. He was the first to realize that Turkic Muslim society needed education and cultural reform to modernize, so he created the new Jadid education system and became known as the founder of the Crimean Tatar enlightenment.

In 1883, Gaspirali received permission to publish Tercüman, the first Turkic-language newspaper in Russia. Tercüman ran for 35 years. For a long time, it was the only Turkic-language publication in Russia and one of the earliest religious newspapers, influencing the entire Turkic-speaking world.

In the newspaper, he advocated for modernization through education and designed a new teaching method called Jadid. He taught the Arabic alphabet using a new phonetic method, which cut the time it took for students to learn to read from three years down to just a few months.

In 1909, Gaspirali built a two-story modern school next to the Zincirli Madrasa, which operated until it closed in 1917.

After Gasprinsky died in his hometown in 1914, he was buried in the cemetery behind the "Zincirli" (Chain) Madrasa. The original tombstone was lost in the second half of the 20th century, and the current one was rebuilt in the late 1990s.



Eski Yurt Old City

Eski Yurt means "old city." During the Golden Horde era, it was a large trading town and a transportation hub connecting the east and west ends of the Crimean Peninsula. After the Crimean Khanate was established in 1441, Eski Yurt remained an economic center. It was not until 1532, when the Khanate built its new capital, Bakhchisaray, in the valley right next to Eski Yurt, that the status of Eski Yurt was replaced and it began to be called the "old city." Even so, because the city once housed a gongbei (shrine) for the sage Malik Ashtar, Eski Yurt remained a religious center for Crimean Tatars until the Soviet era.

According to legend, Malik Ashtar was a cousin of the noble Prophet and a loyal companion of Imam Ali. In Crimean Tatar legends, Malik Ashtar was a brave warrior and the first person to come to Crimea to spread the faith. He eventually died in battle while fighting a giant in Eski Yurt. Many years later, some Sufi practitioners miraculously discovered his grave in Eski Yurt and built a gongbei there. In reality, Malik Ashtar passed away in Egypt, and the gongbei in Eski Yurt is a place where his karamat (miraculous signs) were manifested. Crimean Tatars believe that if you are bitten by a snake, you can recover by making dua at the Malik Ashtar gongbei.

Due to the importance of the Malik Ashtar gongbei, a complex of hundreds of tombs formed around it. This includes the tombs of three Khans of the Crimean Khanate: Mehmed II Giray (reigned 1577–1584), Saadet II Giray (reigned 1584), and Mehmed III Giray (reigned 1623–1628).

From the era of the Crimean Khanate until the early 20th century, a dhikr ceremony was held every Thursday night at the Malik Ashtar gongbei. After all Crimean Tatars were forced into exile in Central Asia in 1948, the central square of the Malik Ashtar gongbei was turned into a market. After Crimean Tatars began returning in the late 1980s, many demanded that the market be removed from the holy site, and it was finally moved in 2006.

The existing structures in the Malik Ashtar gongbei tomb complex include the 14th-15th century Bey Yude Sultan tomb and Ahmed Bey tomb, the 16th-century Mehmed Bey tomb and the tomb of Khan Mehmed II Giray, as well as the minbar (pulpit) of the Malik Ashtar shrine mosque.



The tomb of Crimean Khan Mehmed II Giray is also known as the Great Octagonal Tomb. During his reign, Mehmed II Giray attacked the Persian Safavid dynasty three times under orders from the Ottoman Empire.

The tomb of Mehmed II Giray is the largest one still standing in Eski Yurt and clearly shows Ottoman influence. Some speculate it was built by a student of the master Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, but no records about the architect have been found.



The Malik Ashtar gongbei (a shrine for a Sufi saint) was built during the Crimean Khanate era with a minbar (pulpit) for sermons, but the mosque was destroyed in 1955. This place was once where Sufi practitioners performed dhikr (remembrance of Allah), and it served as a Sufi center on the Crimean Peninsula.



Ahmed Bey died in 1577, and his tombstone was found near the entrance of the tomb in 1924. Although Ahmed Bey died in the 16th century, the architectural style of the tomb itself does not match the Ottoman-influenced tombs of that time; instead, it follows the earlier Golden Horde tomb style. Other buildings similar to Ahmed Bey's tomb date back to the 13th and 14th centuries. Therefore, it is more likely that this tomb was built during the Golden Horde era. view all

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Summary: This first part introduces Shia mosques, ashurkhanas, jamatkhanas, and Muslim heritage sites across India, Thailand, Myanmar, and Singapore, including Hyderabad, Bangkok, Yangon, and Singapore.

India

Bad-e-Shahi Ashur Khana in Hyderabad

Thailand

Sheikh Ahmad gongbei in Ayutthaya

Kudi Luang mosque in Bangkok

Kudi Charoenphat in Bangkok

Phadungtham Islam mosque in Bangkok

Dilfulla mosque in Bangkok

Safee mosque in Bangkok

Goowatil Islam Mosque in Bangkok

Myanmar

Mughal Shia Mosque in Yangon

Hazarat Abbas (A. S) Astana Alamdar-e-Husayn in Yangon.

Punja Mosque in Yangon.

Dawoodi Bohra Saifee Mosque in Yangon.

His Highness The Agakhan Building Myanmar Ismaili Khoja Jamatkhana in Yangon.

Singapore

Al-Burhani mosque in Singapore

Indian Heritage Centre in Singapore

Asian Civilisations Museum in Singapore

India

Bad-e-Shahi Ashur Khana in Hyderabad

Shia Islam grew in the Deccan Plateau of South India during the Bahmani Sultanate (1347-1527). After the Bahmani Sultanate fell, the Qutb Shahi dynasty made Shia Islam the state religion in 1518.

Hyderabad became a center for Shia culture in India during the 16th and 17th centuries. The fifth sultan of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, was a talented Urdu poet and the first person to write Marsiya (Shia mourning poetry for Imam Hussain) in Urdu. Shia scholar and scientist Mir Muhammad Momin arrived at the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1581 and helped design and build the city of Hyderabad in 1591.

Bad-e-Shahi Ashur Khana is the Shia center of Hyderabad and the first Imambargah in India. An Imambargah, also called a Hussainiya, is a hall where Shia Muslims of the Twelver branch mourn Imam Hussain. It is busiest here during Ashura, but there are also events held every week.

The fifth sultan of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, ordered the construction of Bad-e-Shahi Ashur Khana in 1594, and the seventh sultan, Abdullah Qutb Shah, added tiles in 1611. In 1764, the second Nizam of the Asaf Jahi dynasty, Ali Khan, added a wooden colonnade, an outer hall, and a gate. The caretakers here are from a hereditary family, and the current one is the 11th Mutawalli Mujawer, Mir Nawazish Ali Moosvi.

The Arabic calligraphy and floral tiles inside the building use the Cuerda Seca technique, which was created by Persian craftsmen. This technique uses lines drawn with dark pigment mixed with grease on the tile surface to separate different colors of water-soluble glaze, leaving dark lines in every area. Scholars believe the Cuerda Seca technique originated in 10th-century Andalusia (southern Spain) and later spread to Asia through Arabs and Persians. The Mughal Empire frequently used this technique to fire tiles during the 17th century.













When we visited Hyderabad, we happened to catch a Shia event at Bad-e-Shahi Ashur Khana.







Thailand

Sheikh Ahmad gongbei in Ayutthaya

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Shia merchants from the Persian Safavid dynasty traveled along the Indian Ocean coast to trade in Siam, where they were warmly welcomed and received with high honors by the Siamese royal family. Some Persian merchants married locals, settled down, and held important positions in the Siamese court.

Sheikh Ahmad was born in Qom, Persia, in 1543. He arrived in Ayutthaya, Thailand, with his brother in the early 17th century to trade, married a Thai wife, and settled there. Sheikh Ahmad was very successful in business and became one of the wealthiest foreign merchants of his time. He met the Thai royal treasurer and, with his help, connected with the Thai royal family and began participating in Thai trade affairs. After gaining the trust of King Songtham (who reigned from 1610 to 1628), he was appointed Chao Kromma Tha Khwa to manage trade, shipping, and diplomatic affairs between Thailand and the west, including India, Persia, Arabia, and Europe. He was also appointed as the first Chula Rajmontri in Thai history, overseeing religious affairs for the whole country. In 1611, after helping the Thai king defeat Japanese merchants who attempted a coup, he was appointed Samuhanayok, becoming the Grand Vizier of Thailand.

In the early 17th century, Sheikh Ahmad built the Kudi Chao Sen Shia mosque within the city of Ayutthaya, which is the oldest mosque inside the city walls of Ayutthaya. After Sheikh Ahmad passed away in 1631, he was buried near the mosque.

In the late 17th century, the Shia community continued to thrive in Ayutthaya. During the month of Muharram in 1656, Sheikh Ahmad’s son and other Shia nobles helped King Narai take the throne. To show his gratitude, King Narai gave the Ayutthaya Shia community all the items needed for their Ashura ceremonies during Muharram and established a royal guard made up of 500 Shia men. In 1685, a French Jesuit missionary named Father Tachard recorded the grand scene of the Shia Ashura ceremonies in Ayutthaya. He wrote that the procession included over two thousand people, carrying models of the tombs of two saints along with many intricately crafted symbolic objects. The men changed their formations as they walked to the rhythm of drums. At the front of this massive procession were three or four beautifully decorated horses, and many people held long-handled lanterns to light the way for the entire group. The festival lasted for several nights, ending at five o'clock each morning.

Besides the Kudi Chao Sen mosque, Ayutthaya once had two other Shia mosque communities. The Khaek Pae mosque was located on the bank where the Chao Phraya River and the Pa Sak River meet, where Persian merchants once lived on boats, a place locals called the floating village. The Nurul Yamal mosque was in the northern suburbs of the old city of Ayutthaya, near an elephant kraal built by the Ayutthaya dynasty in 1580. According to the 1685 travelogue of the Persian Safavid mission to Ayutthaya, titled The Ship of Suleiman (Safine-ye Solaymani), hundreds of Persian merchants were involved in the profitable elephant trade at the kraal at that time.

After Ayutthaya fell in 1767 and Thailand moved its capital to Bangkok in 1782, the Persian-descended Shia community of Ayutthaya moved to Bangkok as well. Today, the Kudi Chao Sen mosque no longer exists, leaving only the nearby gongbei of Sheikh Ahmad, which was built in 1631.











Opposite the gongbei of Sheikh Ahmad is the Ayutthaya-Persia (Iranian Studies) Room, where the Iranian Embassy in Thailand occasionally holds cultural and memorial events.





Kudi Luang mosque in Bangkok

The Siamese capital of Ayutthaya fell in 1767, and after the capital moved to Bangkok in 1782, the Persian descendants from Ayutthaya followed. The first leader of the Persian-descended Shia community in Bangkok was Konkaew, the son of the last leader in Ayutthaya. In 1797, he began managing Siam's trade with the West and received a residence in the Thonburi area across the Chao Phraya River. People say he and 400 Shia followers established the Kudi Chao Sen mosque community, which became the primary Shia community in Bangkok.

After Konkaew passed away, his brother and the next eight direct descendants inherited the title, controlling Siam's trade rights with the West for a hundred years. In 1897, King Rama V renovated the Kudi Chao Sen mosque and renamed it the Kudi Luang Chao Sen mosque. In 1947, because of the construction of the Royal Thai Navy headquarters, the entire Kudi Luang mosque community was moved to its current location. The residents still live around the mosque, allowing the traditional culture of the Bangkok Shia community to survive.



The elders of the Bangkok Persian-descended Shia community who live around the mosque are not exclusive and are very welcoming to visitors (dosti).



After the prayer (namaz), I went to the Kudi Luang mosque again and ate chicken rice noodle rolls (changfen) with everyone, along with a special dessert made of palm sugar and pomelo that the Bangkok Persian descendants eat during the month of Muharram. Sharing and giving are key themes for Shia Muslims during the month of Muharram. Food is free during this time, and people gather to make the flowers used in the events. Some people in the mosque wear white pants and headscarves with bells hanging from their pant legs. They spend the first ten days of Muharram serving the mosque community with all their heart.















The most eye-catching thing in the mosque is a handsome, tall horse personally gifted by the King of Thailand. This horse represents Zuljanah, the warhorse of Imam Hussein. Zuljanah was raised by the noble Prophet from a young age and is known for loyalty, strength, endurance, and a spirit of sacrifice. During the Battle of Karbala, Zuljanah used its body to block arrows aimed at Imam Hussein. After Imam Hussein passed away, Zuljanah returned to his family covered in blood to warn them of an ambush. It died from its wounds after fulfilling this final duty. During Muharram, the horse is kept in the stables of Kudi Luang mosque, and people take turns walking it in the courtyard every night.



On the qibla wall of the main hall, the flagpole at the top is called an Alam. It represents the flag held by Abbas, the standard-bearer for Imam Hussein during the Battle of Karbala. The metal hand is called a Panja, which symbolizes the severed hands of Abbas. Abbas was the half-brother of Imam Hussein. He inherited the courage of Imam Ali and always held the flag of victory high on the battlefield. People say on the night of Ashura, he was blocked by enemy forces while returning from the Euphrates River with water. He fought alone until his arms were cut off and he was killed.

Above the niche in the qibla wall, the names of Allah, the noble Prophet, and the twelve Imams of the Shia are written. The Twelver branch is the largest branch of Shia Islam and is the state religion of Iran.







The Nakhl Gardani placed in the main hall symbolizes the funeral bier of Imam Hussein. It is decorated with a dagger and a turban (dastar) representing those used by Imam Hussein. During Ashura events, people carry the Nakhl Gardani to symbolize the funeral procession for Imam Hussein.



A Tadjah is also placed in the main hall to symbolize the tomb of Imam Hussein.



There is also a small decoration in the hall representing the youngest baby martyred at the Battle of Karbala, Ali Asghar, the six-month-old son of Imam Hussein. Records state that Imam Hussein held the thirsty Ali Asghar and asked the enemy for water for the child. The enemy fired an arrow that pierced the baby's throat and Imam Hussein's arm at the same time. Ali Asghar later became a symbol of innocent victims and the most painful mourning during Muharram events.



During the first ten nights of Muharram, Shia Muslims in Bangkok chant to commemorate Imam Hussein. During these sessions, people known as Rawda khwan tell the story of the martyrdom of Imam Hussein and his followers at the Battle of Karbala. The stories come from famous books, the most well-known being The Garden of the Martyrs (Rawdat al-shuhada) by the famous Timurid-era Persian writer Hussein Kashifi. Afterward, the imam also gives a sermon (waaz) in Thai, helping everyone learn about the bravery, fearlessness, and spirit of sacrifice shown by Imam Hussein and his followers at the Battle of Karbala.







The Nakhl Gardani used during Ashura events symbolizes the coffin of Imam Hussain, and the entire Ashura event is essentially a reenactment of his funeral.



Kudi Charoenphat in Bangkok

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Akayi, the second leader of the Persian Shia community in Bangkok, built Kudi Charoenphat at the heart of the community. This is an Imambara hall used by the Shia for mourning ceremonies.





An Imambara, also called a Hussainiya or Ashurkhana, is a hall where the Twelver Shia branch holds ceremonies to mourn Imam Hussain. On the Day of Ashura (the 10th of Muharram) in 680 AD, the Prophet's grandson, Imam Hussain, was martyred in the Battle of Karbala. Since then, the Shia hold grand mourning ceremonies every year in the first month of the Islamic calendar (the month of Ashura), the second month (40 days after Ashura), and the ninth month (Ramadan). Except for the most important processions, most ceremonies take place inside the Imambara hall.











The wood carvings on the hall are in the Gingerbread style, which was popular in Thailand in the late 19th century. This architectural style originated in Victorian England during the 19th century and was later developed by British companies logging teak in Thailand, who blended it with local Thai decorative elements. Due to high construction and maintenance costs, this architectural style gradually became a thing of the past after the 20th century.



The Nakhl Gardani used during Ashura events.





A street view of the Persian community in Bangkok. Many walls of Persian-descendant homes and shops here display the 'Lion of God' (Asadullah), which refers to Imam Ali and serves as a symbol of the Shia.



















Phadungtham Islam mosque in Bangkok

The center of the Persian community in Bangkok is the Phadungtham Islam mosque. This mosque was first built in 1938 and was rebuilt into its current structure in 1979.

The new mosque features a Persian-style Iwan gate, modeled after the Imam Reza Shrine, a Shia holy site in Iran.







The clay tablet placed before a prayer rug is called a Turbah in Arabic and a Mohr in Persian. Twelver Shia Muslims touch their foreheads to it during namaz. Some clay tablets feature images of the Imam Hussain Shrine, indicating they are made from the soil of Karbala, where Imam Hussain was martyred.



Dilfulla mosque in Bangkok

The Indian Shia community is located on the southwest side of the Persian Shia community in Bangkok, separated by Itsaraphap Road.

For hundreds of years, Shia merchants from India set out from the cities of Surat and Ahmedabad in Gujarat, traveling across the Indian Ocean to Siam for maritime trade. Because of their shared faith, they often collaborated in business with the Persians, and later intermarried, forming a powerful trade network in Siam. In the early 19th century, Shia merchants from Mumbai began opening shops near the Persian community along the Chao Phraya River. Thanks to the favoritism of Persian officials who controlled Western trade, these Indian Shia businesses could obtain state-controlled export goods from Siam under very favorable conditions.

Adam Ali was a merchant and adventurer from Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. In the early 19th century, he left the city of Surat with fine Indian textiles and sailed across the Indian Ocean to Bangkok many times for trade. Through connections with local Persian-descended nobles in Bangkok who shared his Shia faith, he was able to meet many Siamese nobles. These nobles often visited his merchant ships and bought many high-quality textiles. With the profits from selling textiles, Adam was able to build a pier and warehouse along the Yai Canal near the Persian community, where he opened a textile printing and dyeing factory. The factory workers were all Shia Muslims he brought from India, and he built houses and a mosque near the factory for them, which formed Bangkok's Indian Shia community.

The center of the community is the Dilfulla mosque. It also displays the Shia symbol, the Lion of Allah (Huda zhi shi), and while the interior is slightly simpler than Persian-style mosques, you can still see Shia features in the candlesticks, flowers, and pulpit. Today, the descendants of Adam's family still live around the mosque and have served as imam for generations.



















Inside the main hall of the Dilfulla mosque are incense burners, a pulpit (minbar), scripture boxes, and flowers.





















Next to the mosque is the cemetery for Indian Shia Muslims, where you can see some graves covered in flowers, a memorial style very typical of South Asia.





Safee mosque in Bangkok

In the early 19th century, Phraya Si Phiphat, who managed the Siamese royal warehouses, was a descendant of Shia Muslims from the Ayutthaya period. Although he had long since converted to Buddhism, he still provided many conveniences to Indian Shia merchants. At that time, Phraya Si Phiphat oversaw the construction of rows of royal warehouses and piers in the Khlong San area on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River. After Britain and Siam signed the Bowring Treaty in 1855, the Siamese royal family was forced to give up its trade monopoly, and the royal warehouses were emptied. Phraya Si Phiphat then rented these warehouses to Indian Shia Muslims, leading to the emergence of a new Indian Shia community here.

The first Indian Shia merchant to rent a royal warehouse was A. T. E. Maskati, a textile dealer from Ahmedabad in Gujarat. He had already opened a shop near the Persian Shia community in Bangkok in the early 19th century. In 1856, he opened a weaving and dyeing factory inside the royal warehouses, employing over 600 Indian Shia workers at its peak. He and other Indian Shia merchants built a mosque in the warehouse area, naming it Toek Khaw (white brick) mosque after the warehouse's whitewashed walls, which was later renamed Safee mosque.

Safee mosque is located deep inside the royal warehouses and can only be reached through a hidden alley in the middle of the warehouse complex. Most of the Indian merchants who once had shops nearby eventually returned to India, and only a few married and had children in Bangkok, with their descendants still living here today.







This mosque belongs to a small branch of Ismailism called the Dawoodi Bohras. This branch has only a few million followers, most of whom live in Gujarat, India, and Karachi, Pakistan. Today, a photo of Mufaddal Saifuddin, the 53rd leader of the Dawoodi Bohras who succeeded in 2014, can be seen on the wall of the Sefi mosque.



















The Dawoodi Bohra cemetery sits right next to the Persian community in Bangkok. Since the mid-19th century, it has been the final resting place for Shia Muslims from Indian cities like Surat, Mumbai, Sidhpur, Khambhat, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, and Dhoraji.

The Dawoodi Bohras are known for their focus on trade and their modern lifestyle. Most followers are merchants and entrepreneurs, and the word Bohra itself means trade in the Gujarati language.

The Dawoodi Bohras trace their origins back to the Shia Ismaili Fatimid Caliphate, which ruled North Africa from the 10th to the 12th century. In 1067, the 18th imam of the Fatimid Caliphate sent a man named Abd Allah from Yemen to Gujarat, India, to spread the faith, where he found great success. Since then, the followers in Gujarat have stayed in contact with Yemen and continued to grow. In 1567, the headquarters of this sect officially moved from Yemen to Gujarat.

Starting in the 19th century, members of the Dawoodi Bohras began traveling abroad to do business. The 43rd leader, Abdeali Saifuddin, invited 12,000 followers to the city of Surat in Gujarat. He provided them with food, work, and housing. The only condition was that they had to learn and practice professional skills, and he gave them startup capital once they finished their training. Many people chose to use this money to start businesses abroad. Some reached East Africa, while others came to Siam.

The Dawoodi Bohras have a unique culture that blends traditions from Yemen, Egypt, Pakistan, and India. They use a language called Lisan al-Dawat, which has a basic structure from Gujarati and vocabulary from Arabic. view all

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Summary: This article visits the Sabah Islamic Civilization Museum in Malaysia, with a focus on regional Muslim history, exhibition displays, and local cultural context. It keeps the original museum details, photographs, artifact notes, and travel observations for readers interested in Islamic heritage in Sabah.

The Sabah Islamic Civilization Museum opened in 2002. It has a small collection and is not well-known, but it is special because it holds unique Islamic cultural artifacts from the Malay Archipelago that you cannot see in other museums.





This is a wooden prayer gong (kentung) made in 1918 by the Sambas Sultanate in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is a traditional instrument used to signal the call to prayer.

The Sambas Malays live on the northwest coast of Borneo, right next to the Malaysian state of Sabah. The Sambas Malays founded the Sambas Sultanate in 1675. It became part of Indonesia in 1956, and the Sultan of Sambas still lives in the palace today. The Sambas Malays are mainly Sufi. Their rituals combine features of the Qadiriyya and Naqshbandiyya orders and are famous for their unique chanting style.











This is a manuscript of scripture from Sulawesi, Indonesia, written on date palm leaves and bound in goatskin. It is over a hundred years old. It was donated to the Sabah Islamic Civilization Museum in 2015 by Tuan Hj. Abdullah Abas, a religious teacher from Kinarut, Sabah, Malaysia.







This is a traditional Indonesian wooden chest carved with scripture, used for storing clothes. This type of wood carving is found in several Islamic museums in Malaysia and is a very distinctive piece of Islamic craft.

























This is a bridal curtain used by the Bajau (Sama) people, a sea-faring group living on the west coast of Sabah, Malaysia, in Kota Belud.









This is a porcelain plate with scripture from the 1930s, acquired by the museum in 2005. Malay people usually display this kind of porcelain plate in a cabinet as a decoration.



These scripture-inscribed ceramics were brought to Sabah through trade and include pieces from both China and Europe. Under the rule of the Sultanate of Brunei, Sabah had very close trade ties with the Qing Dynasty, Spain, the Netherlands, and other countries.

















This is a protective vest (dua vest) worn by indigenous soldiers in Sabah during the anti-British resistance led by Mat Salleh between 1894 and 1905.

The resistance leader Mat Salleh, whose real name was Datuk Muhammad Salleh, was an indigenous leader in Sabah. In 1881, the British took control of Sabah by establishing the North Borneo Chartered Company. Mat Salleh felt this violated the rights of the indigenous people and refused to recognize the company. In 1895, after negotiations with the company failed, Mat Salleh was declared a wanted man. He immediately built a fortress to openly resist the British and successfully launched several attacks. He died in battle in 1900, and his followers continued to fight until they were finally defeated in 1905.









This is a decorative wooden frame made in 1918, featuring scripture carvings and traditional embroidery in the center.



These are wooden grave markers from the Semporna region. This type of wooden grave marker is unique to the Semporna area and is carved with floral patterns around the edges.







This is a century-old bas-relief bronze plaque featuring the Basmala.





This is a prayer drum (beduk) made of palm wood and cowhide. It is usually placed in front of the main hall or at the entrance of a mosque, which is why many traditional mosques in Southeast Asia do not have minarets.





There are many wavy-bladed daggers (keris) in museums across Malaysia and Indonesia, but very few have a clear record of their origin. The Museum of Islamic Civilization in Sabah displays a sword called Pedang Khusus. Palace guards in the Tidung Kingdom on Tarakan Island off the east coast of Borneo wore this gold-made, highly detailed weapon.









The second type is called Sundang, a wavy-bladed dagger (keris) with blood grooves used by the Sulu people. The handle of the Sundang is cylindrical, which keeps it from slipping out of your hand during use.





Woodcarver Mba Hj. Edie Ifa from Jepara, Java, Indonesia, worked with students from a nearby Islamic school (madrasa) to carve a pair of scripture-inscribed door panels from a century-old teak log.



A wooden tombstone from the Bajau people of Semporna, with the top carved into the shape of a hat.



A hand-copied Persian scripture from 1796.









A scripture stand from Qom, Iran, dating back to the 18th century.



Tiles from the Ilkhanate period, dating to the 13th or 14th century.



A copper bowl from the Mamluk period in Egypt.



Two sets of cloisonné (jingtailan) altar vases and incense burners. One set likely traveled from Hong Kong to Malaysia during the era of export-oriented production. view all

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Summary: Halal Travel Guide: Dalian, Fuzhou Ancient City and Qingdui Ancient Town is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear, natural English. The account focuses on Dalian, Liaoning Travel, Ancient Towns while preserving the names, places, food, photos, and historical details from the Chinese source.

On the morning of June 8, we took a high-speed train from Shenyang Railway Station and arrived at Wafangdian West Station in Dalian in an hour and a half. After leaving the station, we shared a ride for 20 minutes to reach the ancient town of Fuzhou.

We first stopped at the Qunfangyuan Restaurant near the Fuzhou town roundabout to eat some traditional Fuzhou old-style dishes (Fuzhou laocai). Fuzhou is a thousand-year-old town established during the Liao Dynasty. Since the Ming and Qing dynasties, it has been a major commercial hub in southern Liaoning, attracting many merchants. It only began to lose its importance to Wafangdian along the railway line after the South Manchuria Railway was built in modern times. Around 1641, the sixth year of the Chongde reign of the Qing Dynasty, four Hui Muslim families—the Yin, Ma, Dai, and Hui families from Cangzhou, Hebei—moved to Fuzhou. Later, they worked with the local Manchu and Han people to develop the unique Fuzhou old-style dishes.

Fuzhou old-style dishes are known for their oil-fried meat (guoyourou), twice-cooked meat (huishaorou), braised meatballs (huiwanzi), dragon and tiger fight (longhudou), and fried crispy crackers (zhabaochui). Because portions of Northeast Chinese food are so large, we just ordered the most famous oil-fried meat to try. The Fuzhou version of oil-fried meat contains only meat with no side vegetables. It is seasoned with vinegar and garlic, giving it a salty, fresh, and sour taste that goes perfectly with rice.

Fuzhou oil-fried meat is also called the dish of ethnic unity. Legend has it that during the late Qing Dynasty, a soldier named Tuoerha from the Plain Blue Banner died in battle in southern Xinjiang, leaving his wife and children helpless in Fuzhou. One day, just before the Lunar New Year, a mother and her son were walking down the street. The boy was so drawn to the aroma from a restaurant that he refused to leave. The owner knew the boy's father had died for his country, so he invited them inside. He told the kitchen staff to prepare a dish of pure meat for them and to fry it an extra time. Because of this, double-fried meat (guoyourou) became a signature New Year dish for the people of Fuzhou.















After lunch, we went to Fuzhou Mosque (Fuzhou Si) to pray. The imam at Fuzhou Mosque is from Mengcun in Cangzhou, Hebei, which is a major tradition for the faith in Liaoning.

In the early Qing Dynasty, Hui Muslims with the surnames Yin, Dai, Ma, and Hui moved to Fuzhou from Cangzhou. In 1649 (the sixth year of the Shunzhi reign), they began building Fuzhou Mosque. By 1656 (the thirteenth year of the Shunzhi reign), they had finished three thatched rooms to serve as the main prayer hall. The main hall was rebuilt in 1774 (the thirty-ninth year of the Qianlong reign) and expanded again in 1880 (the sixth year of the Guangxu reign), though it still had a thatched roof. In 1920, the front porch and rear kiln-style hall were added, and the roof was changed to blue brick tiles, creating the structure seen today.



















Hanging in front of the main hall of Fuzhou Mosque is a plaque that reads "Returning to Simplicity and Truth" (Huan Pu Gui Zhen). It was presented in 1897 (the twenty-third year of the Guangxu reign) by Wang Tingxiang, a third-rank official, imperial censor, and scholar of the Hanlin Academy.







Additionally, the brick carvings on the wall ends feature traditional calligraphy of a dua.







Hui Muslim homes inside Fuzhou City. The old street features blue bricks and dark roof tiles, with Arabic calligraphy (jingzi) and dua written on the walls, keeping the look of the past. Many people have moved to Wafangdian and Dalian to live, so the old street has become quiet.



















There is a legendary halal food spot in Fuzhou City, which is my friend's family business, Yin's sticky rice cake (jiangmi lianggao). The Yin family of Fuzhou originally came from Qing County in Cangzhou and settled in Fuzhou during the early Qing Dynasty. The sticky rice cake made by my friend's great-uncle, Yin Xiangzhou, was famous in Fuzhou a hundred years ago, and now my friend's mother pushes a small cart to sell it along the street every day. A loudspeaker plays, 'Sticky rice cake, fragrant and sweet.' Then everyone comes out to buy the sticky rice cake.

Sticky rice cake (jiangmi lianggao) is made by topping sticky rice with fillings like peanuts, sesame, and sugar. Traditionally, it included candied green and red fruit strips (qinghongsi), but these are now left out to suit younger tastes. Sticky rice cake is very refreshing in the summer, and it feels great on the stomach when paired with tea.

A quick tip: some people say the Yin family pushcart is hard to find. We spotted it at 2:15 p.m. at the intersection west of the Fuzhou Prefectural Office (Fuzhou Zhizhou Yashu). It then moves south along the main road, and you can hear the vendor calling out from far away.















We took the high-speed train from Wafangdian West Station at 3:30 p.m., arrived at Dalian North Station at 4:00 p.m., and then took a taxi to our accommodation to drop off our luggage.

We stayed at the No. 21 Mansion (Ershiyi Hao Gongguan) near the Russian Style Street. The hotel sits in a courtyard that is part of the Yantai Street Russian-style building complex, which includes 28 European-style villas and marks the starting point of Dalian's history. In 1898, Tsarist Russia leased Dalian Bay and began building Dalian city the following year. The first street built was called Engineer Street, which is now known as Russian Style Street. Soon after, Timov Street was built right next to Engineer Street, and it was renamed Yantai Street after 1946. Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Tsarist Russia hired German and Russian designers to build a series of European-style villas on Yantai Street, and 28 of them still stand today.

After the Russian-style building complex on Yantai Street was restored in 2011, several hotels and restaurants moved in. When we visited, several places were hosting weddings, which felt a bit like the Italian Style Street in Tianjin. Several villas in the courtyard belong to the Dalian Railway 1896 Garden Hotel, which you can stay in at any time. The No. 21 Mansion where we stayed is military property and only opens during holidays, but you can book it online.

Building No. 21 was built in 1903 and designed by the famous German architect Jan Hendel. In 1920, early labor movement leader and Manchurian Provincial Committee Secretary Wang Ligong lived here. The house we stayed in had windows on both the north and south sides, making the environment very pleasant. The courtyard was very quiet, which was a sharp contrast to the busy Russian-style street next door.



















In the afternoon, we had dinner at the long-established Majia Dumpling Restaurant in front of Dalian Railway Station. We ordered sea snail and chive dumplings (haoluo jiucai jiaozi), mackerel ball soup (bayu wanzi tang), and dry-braised flatfish (gan shao piankou yu). Traditionally, Hui Muslims in North and Northeast China do not cook seafood; they focus on beef and lamb. They only started making seafood dumplings after the Reform and Opening-up, and it gradually became a local specialty. They serve dumplings with yellow mustard sauce, which is very unique and adds a great kick to the flavor. The dry-braised flatfish was also well-prepared, with a sweet and spicy taste that really whets the appetite. People who ate at their original shop say the dumplings were even better decades ago, and I can really understand that sense of nostalgia. But as travelers, we are already very happy to be able to eat these dumplings.

Ma Family Dumpling Restaurant (Ma Jia Jiaozi Guan) was the first halal dumpling shop in Dalian and one of the city's two earliest dumpling restaurants. It was opened in 1947 by Liu Yushan, Ma Baishi, and Zhao Fangchen at the Bo'ai Market in Xigang. It was originally called Ruixianghao Hui Muslim Dumpling Restaurant before changing its name to Ma Family Dumpling Restaurant. After the Reform and Opening-up, the restaurant moved to the former site of the Goubuli Steamed Bun Shop on Tianjin Street. It moved to its current location after the renovation of Tianjin Street in the early 21st century. At first, the restaurant only served beef dumplings. After the Reform and Opening-up, seafood dumplings appeared in Dalian, so the restaurant started making new varieties like mackerel dumplings (bayu jiaozi) and sea snail dumplings (hailuo jiaozi).



















After dinner, we headed to the Dalian Mosque (Dalian Si) on Beijing Street. After Dalian opened as a port in 1897, Hui Muslims from places like Shandong and Hebei came here to make a living. Ma Xinglong, Wang Qifa, Jin Xiangchen, and others first rented a few small rooms on Dalong Street in Xigang to perform their prayers. In 1925, a Russian Muslim working for the South Manchuria Railway (Mantie) secured funding and land from the company to build the Dalian Mosque in a traditional Kazan Tatar style.

The original Dalian Mosque looked very similar to Tatar mosques in Kazan, Russia, featuring a neoclassical main hall and two minarets at the front and back. The minbar pulpit inside the main hall has stairs that lead directly to the minaret on the roof, which is very rare for a traditional mosque in China.

This Kazan Tatar-style Dalian Mosque stood for 64 years, was rebuilt in 1990, and finally expanded into its current structure in 2005.



















I left Dalian Station at 6:20 on June 9, arrived at Qingdui Station at 8:00, and then took a taxi to the ancient town of Qingdui to visit Qingdui Mosque.

Qingdui Town is a thousand-year-old town that has served as a fishing port and commercial hub on the Liaodong Peninsula since the Tang Dynasty. Qingbu Port officially opened in 1743 (the eighth year of the Qianlong reign), making Qingdui Town an important transit point for people from Shandong and Hebei moving to Northeast China. During the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China era, Qingdui Town had over three hundred businesses, with shops lining the streets and bustling with activity. Today, Qingdui Town still keeps many old houses with grey bricks and dark tiles from the late Qing and Republican periods, and Qingdui Mosque is one of them.

Qingdui Mosque was first built during the Daoguang reign of the Qing Dynasty and started as just three thatched huts. The First Sino-Japanese War began in July 1894. Famous Hui Muslim general Zuo Baogui led his troops to Korea to fight the Japanese and passed by Qingdui Mosque (Qingdui Si). General Zuo Baogui and the imam of Qingdui Mosque, Zhang Chaozhen, got along very well. Later, the general donated money himself. Along with funds raised by his personal Hui Muslim guards and three local halal restaurants—Deshengyuan, Qingshengyuan, and Yongshengyuan—they prepared to expand the mosque. Sadly, before the expansion was finished, General Zuo Baogui died heroically while fighting the Japanese in Pyongyang.

In 1895 (the 21st year of the Guangxu reign), Hui Wanchun, the elder in charge of Qingdui Mosque, oversaw the rebuilding of the main hall into the three-room green brick and tile structure seen today. In 1920 (the 9th year of the Republic of China), the gate tower was rebuilt and the lecture hall was expanded, giving the mosque its current size.

The gate of Qingdui Mosque features a brick-carved couplet that reads: 'The pure palace spreads the teachings of the Quran and the path of Muhammad; the true sage passes down scriptures that bring the grace of the Western Regions to this place.' This is a very precious piece of brick-carved calligraphy from the Republic of China era. The main gate is usually closed, so you must enter the mosque through the south wing where the imam lives. The imam came from Gansu and warmly told us about the situation at Qingdui Mosque (Qingdui Si). It is not easy for his family to stay and serve at this small community mosque (xiaofang).



















Hui Muslim homes in the ancient town of Qingdui. Because Qingbu Port silted up and closed, the ancient town of Qingdui gradually became quiet, and the town center moved to the area near the road to the north. There are a few halal restaurants in town. We ordered lamb soup at one of them, Jinhong Lamb Soup Restaurant (Jinhong Yangtang Guan), but when it arrived, we found it contained lamb blood. I had heard long ago that some halal restaurants in Shandong and Northeast China sell lamb blood, but this is the first time I have encountered it in years. We had no choice but to return the lamb soup and take a taxi to the train station to continue our trip to the next stop. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic Art Guide: Quanzhou Maritime Museum Song-Yuan Stone Inscriptions (Part 1) is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear, natural English. The account focuses on Quanzhou, Islamic Art, Stone Inscriptions while preserving the names, places, food, photos, and historical details from the Chinese source.

The Quanzhou Maritime Museum was built in 1959. The Quanzhou Islamic Culture Exhibition Hall opened in 2003, and the 'Arabs and Persians in Quanzhou' exhibition launched in 2008, featuring over 200 stone carvings from the Song and Yuan dynasties. I visited the 'Arabs and Persians in Quanzhou' exhibition in 2017. Returning seven years later, the layout has not changed much, but some of the most iconic stone tablets, such as the tombstone of 'Consul Pan,' have been moved to the 'Quanzhou: World Maritime Trade Center in Song and Yuan China' exhibition, with replicas now in their place.









Tombstone

The largest category of Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic stone carvings in the museum's collection is tombstones.





The tombstone in the picture below was once used as a stone tabletop under the eaves of Yuanshan Hall (later renamed Fentuoshi) on Zhongshan Middle Road in Quanzhou. It is said to have been moved there in 1952 when building materials were purchased from the city's East Gate wall foundations for construction. Ms. Wu Yuanying donated it to the museum in 1965.

The person buried is named Husayn b. Muhammad Khalati. Khalati refers to the ancient city of Ahlat in what is now southeastern Turkey. Historically, Ahlat was part of the Armenian Kingdom, was occupied by Arabs in the mid-7th century, and developed into an important trade hub in southeastern Turkey by the 10th century. Ahlat was captured by the Seljuk Empire in 1071 and later became the capital of the Turkmen beylik known as Shah-Armens.

Because the inscription is written in a very irregular way, there are still many questions about how to read it. If we read the date as 567 in the Islamic calendar, which is 1171 in the Gregorian calendar, this stone would be the oldest Arabic inscription found in Quanzhou.



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1939 when the North Gate (Chaotian Gate) of Quanzhou was torn down. The person buried there was named Nuransa Ibn Khwaja Balad-shah b. Khwaja Haji Harbk Khorazmi, who died in 1322.

In his name, Nuransa is his given name, and Balad-shah is his father's name, which means leader in Persian. Harbk is his grandfather's name, Khwaja shows his noble status, Haji means his grandfather had been on the Hajj, and Khorazmi shows his family came from the Khwarezm region of Central Asia.

The Khwarezmian Empire was destroyed by the Mongol Empire in 1221 and was later divided between the Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde. In the 14th century, Khwarezm was an important trade center in Central Asia until it was destroyed by the Timurid Empire in 1388.



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1936 at Jintoupu Village outside the East Gate (Tonghuai Gate) of Quanzhou. The person buried there died in 1358 and was named Banan b. Ghasim Isfahani, who came from the famous Iranian city of Isfahan.

Isfahan became the capital of the Seljuk Empire in the mid-11th century and reached its peak in the late 11th century. Isfahan declined after the fall of the Seljuk Empire in the 13th century. It suffered a massacre by Timur in 1387 and did not revive until the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.



The tombstone in the picture below was unearthed in 1931 at Jintoupu outside Tonghuai Gate in Quanzhou. The person buried there was Sihab al-dunya sa l-din b. Daghab, the son of a garrison commander from Balashaghun. He died in 1301, and the inscription includes a verse from the Quran (3:185).

Balashaghun is located on the banks of the Chu River in Kyrgyzstan. It was once the capital of the Kara-Khanid Khanate and the new capital of the Western Liao dynasty. It is the hometown of Yusuf Khass Hajib, the author of Wisdom of Royal Glory (Kutadgu Bilig). Balashaghun was captured by the Mongol Empire in 1218 and gradually became a ruin by the 14th century.



The tombstone in the picture below was unearthed in 1933 from the city wall of Renfeng Gate in Quanzhou. The person buried there was Muhammad b. Su'ud Yahya, who died in 1326.



The tombstone in the picture below was unearthed in 1939 from the city wall of Tonghuai Gate in Quanzhou. The person buried there was Khwaja Ali b. Uthman al-Jilani, who died in 1357.

Gilan is located on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea in northwestern Iran. It was ruled by locals until the 11th to 16th centuries. It was occupied by the Ilkhanate in 1307 but regained its independence in 1336.



The tombstone in the picture below.

This was unearthed in 1978 on a street in Houhai Road Village, outside Tonghuai Gate in Quanzhou, and it is carved with verses from the Quran (21:35, 28:88).



The bottom half of the tombstone in the picture below was found in 1934 on a field path outside Tonghuai Gate in Quanzhou, while the top half was found in 1942 while digging for city wall foundation stones at the East Gate of Quanzhou. The person buried here was named Shaikh Aklab Umar, who passed away in 1303, and the inscription also features verses from the Quran (55:26-27, 3:185).



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1938 while digging for city foundation stones at Renfeng Gate, the East Gate of Quanzhou; the person buried here was named Granto Takin b. Sultan Husayn, who passed away in 1308. Takin is a Turkic title for a prince or noble.



The tombstone in the picture below is a replica, and the original is on display in the main hall of the Maritime Museum. It was discovered in the summer of 1934 within the city foundations at the East Gate of Quanzhou. The top is carved with scripture (28:88) and also Chinese characters: 'General Manager Pan died on the first day of the fourth lunar month.' According to the History of Song, Volume 7 on Official Positions, the position of General Manager was created during the Jianyan era of Emperor Gaozong of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1130) to manage money, grain, and taxes. By the Shaoxing era of the Southern Song Dynasty, the General Manager could directly participate in military and political affairs and held great power. However, the Yuan Dianzhang records that the title of General Manager was used for minor officials in the prisons of various prefectures and counties.



The tombstone in the picture below was found in April 1958 in the city foundation near Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou. The tomb owner was named Haji Khwaja b. Hasam al-Din b. Yalaki Siraf, who passed away in 1362.

Siraf is also translated in historical records as Shiluowei, Shilafu, Sanawei, Shilafu, or Siluofu. It is located in southern Iran and was the largest trading port in the Persian Gulf between the 9th and 13th centuries. Most Persian merchants traveling to Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties set off from here.



The tombstone in the picture below was discovered in 1926 by the famous archaeologist Chen Wanli on South Street in Quanzhou (now Zhongshan Road). He asked the Quanzhou government to move it to the Construction Bureau for safekeeping, but it was lost during a flood in 1935. In 1955, residents digging at the old Construction Bureau site found a stone tablet, but the bottom part with the date was broken. The person buried there was the daughter of Sayyid Burtumi b. Sayyid Muhammad al-Hamdani.

Hamadan is located southwest of Tehran and serves as an important commercial center and transport hub in northwestern Iran. Hamadan became the capital of the Seljuk Empire in the 11th century, but it was destroyed by the Mongol army in 1220 and again during the Timurid invasion in the 14th century, only recovering during the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1929 when the Renfeng Gate wall at the East Gate of Quanzhou was torn down. It broke into three pieces and was stacked into a house wall, then rediscovered in 1950 after the wall collapsed. A corner of the tombstone was lost in the late 1960s. The person buried there died in 1337, and the inscription is a verse from the Quran (21:34-35).



The tombstone in the picture below was found in September 1958 next to a field in Huazhou Village outside the South Gate of Quanzhou. Local villagers said it was a city stone dug up from the Quanzhou South Gate wall over 20 years earlier. They originally planned to use it to build a house, but after realizing it was a tombstone, they used it to pave a path in the field instead. The person buried there was named Abu Masman Ghath, and the inscription is a verse from the Quran (55:26-27).



The tombstone in the picture below was found on the road surface of West Street in Quanzhou in 1932. It was originally taken from the city wall to pave the road. The person buried there is named Khadija bint Fanshah.



The tombstone in the picture below was unearthed in 1981 at a villager's home in Jinputou, outside Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou. The person buried there is named al-Hamd Suad.



The tombstone in the picture below was found in a resident's home near the South Gate factory area in Quanzhou in 1945 and was recovered for preservation in 1953. The inscription is a verse from the Quran (29:57).



The tombstone in the picture below was excavated from the city wall at the East Gate of Quanzhou in 1930. The center features a full moon carved in Arabic script, with a swirling cloud on each side, creating a cloud and moon pattern. The top center of the tombstone features the Shahada, surrounded by dua.



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1940 while digging city foundations near Jiaochangtou, close to Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou. The tombstone features a cloud and moon design, with a full moon in the center and swirling cloud patterns on both sides. The person buried here died in 1350, and the inscription is a verse from the Quran (55:26-27).



The tombstone in the picture below was found in June 1959 in Xiawei Village, outside Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou. According to local villagers, this stone was dug up from the city wall many years ago and used to pave a small path in the fields. It was dug up again during road construction and kept in an ancestral hall because the writing on it looked unusual. The inscription consists of verses from the Quran (39:4, 55:26-27).



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1947 in the city foundations of Deji Gate at the South Gate of Quanzhou. That same year, it was used to build a pier for the Shunji Bridge at the South Gate, but it was later discovered and moved. The inscription is a verse from the Quran (55:26-27).



The tombstone inscription in the picture below is a verse from the Quran (55:26-27). The lower part of the tombstone is damaged, so we only know the person was a "pure servant who died on Saturday, May 2nd, in the year..."



The tombstone in the picture below was found in a field near East Lake outside the Small East Gate of Quanzhou in April 1962. Local villagers say it was dug up from the city wall years ago to pave the road. The inscription is a verse from the Quran (3:85).



The tombstone in the picture below was found in a pond outside Renfeng Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou in 1939. The tomb owner's title is Sayyid al-Ajall al-Kabir, which translates to "the first, the respected, the important." The other side is carved with Chinese characters reading "Fengxun Dafu, Darughachi of Yongchun County..."

Darughachi was a government position during the Yuan Dynasty, held only by Mongols or powerful Semu people. Yongchun County is under the jurisdiction of Quanzhou. According to the Yongchun Prefecture Records, there was once a darughachi named Tuohuanshaduoluoboer, who might be the same person as the tomb owner.





The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1931 when the East Gate of Quanzhou was dismantled. The tomb owner was named Khwaja Jalal al-Din b. Muhammad b. Ibrahim, who passed away in 1305. The back is carved with verses from the Quran (89:28-30).



The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1942 at a stone shop on Renfeng Street outside the East Gate of Quanzhou. It had been dug out from the city wall. The tomb owner was named Amir Tughasun Amir Ali b. Hasan b. Ali al-Ghazwini, who passed away in 1371 (some say 1273). Amir, also translated as Yimi, originally meant commander and was later used to refer to a lord.

In his book Religious Stone Inscriptions of Quanzhou, Wu Wenliang speculates that this Amir was the imam of the foreign quarter in Quanzhou at that time. In the early Ming Dynasty, the government briefly followed the open policies of the Yuan Dynasty, encouraged foreign trade, and established a Maritime Trade Office in Quanzhou. This policy did not last long. In 1371, the Ming Dynasty issued a maritime ban, and in 1374, it closed the Quanzhou Maritime Trade Office. The once-thriving foreign quarter in Quanzhou quickly declined.

Qazvin is located in northwestern Iran, south of the Caspian Sea. In 1220, the Mongol army massacred the population of Qazvin. Afterward, many Turkic-speaking people moved to Qazvin to settle. In 1295, Qazvin suffered heavy damage during the turmoil of Ghazan Khan's struggle for the throne of the Ilkhanate, and many people left the city.





The tombstone in the picture below was discovered in 1940 when the Renfeng Gate at the east gate of Quanzhou was demolished. The person buried there was Shams al-Din b. Nur al-Din b. Ishaqan Shahristani, who died in 1325 and came from Shahristan in Iran. The back features a verse from the Quran (3:19).





The tombstone in the picture below was found in March 1963 in the home of a farmer at Ruifengling outside the east gate of Quanzhou. The family said it was discovered when an old wall that had stood for a hundred years collapsed. Several gravestones belonging to the faith were found near Ruifeng Ridge, marking it as one of the burial sites for Muslims in Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties. The person buried there was named Fatima bint Naina, who passed away in 1306. The back of the stone is carved with verses from the Quran (55:26-27).



The gravestone in the picture below is broken into several pieces, with two parts remaining today; they were unearthed in 1953 and 1956 at Jintoupu, outside the Tonghuai Gate of Quanzhou's East Gate. The person buried there was named Abu Bakr b. Husayn Sinan, who passed away in 1319.





The gravestone in the picture below was excavated from the city wall at Quanzhou's East Gate in 1929; the person buried there was named Haji b. Agfar Beg b. Haji al-Malighi, who passed away in 1387 (though some say 1290). If the date is 1387, it is a rare gravestone from the Ming dynasty. The back is carved with a verse from the Quran (2:156) and a hadith stating, 'Whoever dies in a foreign land dies a martyr.'





The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1930 when the East Gate of Quanzhou was demolished. The person buried there was named Mansur b. Haji al-Qasim al-Jajarmi, who died in 1277. The back features the Shahada and a verse from the Quran (28:88). This Mansur and the previously mentioned Qutb al-Din Ya'qub both came from Jajarm in the North Khorasan province of Iran.

In 1276, the Yuan army captured Lin'an, and Wen Tianxiang and others supported Emperor Duanzong as they fled to Quanzhou. The Song army seized 2,000 of Pu Shougeng's ships (some say over 400) and confiscated his property. This led Pu Shougeng to carry out a retaliatory massacre of the Southern Song royal family members living abroad and to hunt down Emperor Duanzong. In 1277, the Yuan army arrived in Quanzhou, and Pu Shougeng surrendered the city, marking a new chapter in Quanzhou's history.





The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1932 when the Renfeng Gate of the Quanzhou East Gate city wall was demolished. The person buried there was named Shirin Khatun bint Hasan Zaituni, who died in 1321. In Turkic languages, Khatun means queen or lady. The inscription also features a verse from the Quran (29:57).

Citong is another name for Quanzhou, named after the coral trees (citong) planted everywhere since the Five Dynasties period. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, Arab merchants called Quanzhou Zaitun because the name sounded like the Arabic word for olive (zaitun).





The tombstone in the picture below was found in November 1978 inside a family home at Jintoupu, outside Tonghuai Gate in Quanzhou, where it was being used as a foundation stone. Before that, it had been excavated from the city walls of Tonghuai Gate. The person buried there was named Ibn Ghawamar al-Din al-Ghar... The inscription describes him as a Khwaja, a leader of the faith, and a leader of the Mawla. The text uses Persian several times, so the person buried there likely came from a Persian cultural background.





The tombstone in the picture below was unearthed in March 1964 at the construction site of the Overseas Chinese Mansion in downtown Quanzhou. This site was once the location of the Haiqing Pavilion during the Qing Dynasty. When the Senate building was built in the early 1940s, the city walls of the east and south gates of Quanzhou were torn down for building materials, and this stone tablet was likely buried in the wall foundation at that time. One side of the tombstone is carved with the Shahada, and the other side is carved with a verse from the Quran (3:185).





The tombstone in the picture below was found in the foundation of the east gate of Quanzhou in 1944. One side is carved with the Basmala and the Shahada, and the other side is carved with a verse from the Quran (29:57).





The tombstone in the picture below was unearthed in 1973 during the cleaning of the North Canal in Quanzhou and is carved with verses from the Quran (89:28-30).





Sumeru-pedestal stone tomb.

The second largest category after tombstones is the Sumeru-pedestal stone tomb.

These are two Sumeru-pedestal style tomb stones. The upper tomb cap stone was found near Dongchan Mosque outside the east gate of Quanzhou in 1927 and was recovered and preserved in the Maritime Museum in 1958.

The person buried here was named Qutb al-Din Ya'qub. He came from Jajarm in the North Khorasan province of Iran and passed away in 1309. The inscription begins by saying, 'He is eternal and never dies; he has moved from the world of destruction to the world of eternity.'

Jajarm sits on the edge of the central Iranian desert and holds many historical and archaeological sites. This city was an important trade hub in Khorasan during the 10th and 11th centuries, but it slowly declined after the Persian Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.

The lower half has five layers. The fourth layer is carved with scripture (2:255). In 1958, the Quanzhou Cultural Relics Management Committee temporarily stored it in the main hall of the Qingjing Mosque, later moved it to the Lingshan Islamic Cemetery area, and finally placed it in the Maritime Museum.









The patterns on this Sumeru-style stone tomb are very unique. The bottom and second layers are destroyed. The third layer features overlapping lotus petal reliefs, the fourth layer has continuous swastika pattern reliefs, and the fifth layer shows a cloud and moon relief on the front with a square cloth relief in the middle. This tombstone was found in 1959 by the seaside in Meishan, Fashi Township, 5 kilometers outside the Tonghuai Gate of Quanzhou. It was later moved to the Maritime Museum for preservation.









Several other Sumeru-style stone tombs.













The tombstone base of a pedestal-style altar tomb.

A corner of the Maritime Museum (Haijiaoguan) is piled with many tombstones. There are no labels, and many are hard to see because they are stacked on top of each other. They were arranged this way when I visited in 2017, and nothing has changed after seven years.



















Found in 1937 at Jintoupu Village outside Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou, the inscription reads, 'Everyone (shall taste death).'



Found in 1943 inside the city wall foundation at the East Gate of Quanzhou, the inscription contains Quranic verses (9:21-22).



The tombstone base above was found in 1939 inside the city wall at Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou, and it contains Quranic verses (29:57).



Found in 1943 near the East Drill Ground (Dongjiaochang) in Quanzhou, the inscription reads, 'Your Lord of Might.'













The tombstone base in the picture below was found in 1959 in a pile of rubble at the Qingjing Mosque. This pile of rubble was dug up from the city wall foundation near Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou, and it was moved to the Maritime Museum (Haijiaoguan) for preservation in 1964. The inscription states the tomb owner's name is Toghan-shah b. Umar b. Sayyid Ajall. Toghan means eagle in Turkic, and Shah means king in Persian, which is how Central Asians addressed nobles. Sayyid Ajall means honorable gentleman in Arabic, and it is a respectful title for descendants of the Prophet.

Coincidentally, a tombstone unearthed in 1952 at the foundation of the Southeast Drill Ground in Quanzhou likely belongs to the same person as the Toghan-shah tombstone mentioned above. Unfortunately, this tombstone was moved to the National Museum of China in 1959 and is not currently on display, so the Maritime Museum only shows a replica. This tombstone states the owner's name is Amir Sayyid Ajall Tohgan-shah b. Sayyid Ajall Umar b. Sayyid Ajall Amiran b. Amir Isfahasalar Darnakrani al-Buhari, who passed away in 1302. The term Isfahasalar is made up of the Persian word Isfahah and the Turkic word Salar, meaning military general.

Both tombstones mention that Toghan-shah's father was named Umar Sayyid Ajall. The second son of Nasulading, who was the son of the famous Yuan Dynasty politician Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din, was named Umar Sayyid Ajjal. Umar once served as the administrator of the Fujian Branch Secretariat in Quanzhou. According to Rashid al-Din's History of the Mongols, Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din was from Bukhara, which matches the records on the tombstone.







The tombstone in the picture below was found in 1987. One side is carved with the testimony of faith, and the other side, translated by Imam Wang Yaodong from Ningxia, says the person buried there was named Haji Abdullah.







The tombstone base stone above was found in the foundation of the East Gate of Quanzhou in 1944 and is carved with a verse from the Quran (21:35). The bottom left of Figure 1 shows a tombstone base stone from a pedestal-style altar. It was found near the South Gate of Quanzhou in 1959, and local residents say it was recovered when the South Gate was torn down between 1946 and 1948. The inscription on the stone features a verse from the Quran (24:35).



The tombstone base stone above was found in the foundation of the East Gate of Quanzhou in 1944 and is carved with a verse from the Quran (28:88).



The tombstone marker in the middle of the picture below was found in 1960 among a pile of rubble at the entrance of Chongfu Mosque at the East Gate of Quanzhou. It reads, 'Everything will perish except Him.'







The shape of this stone carving is quite unique and different from any other tombstones or tombstone markers seen so far. It was found in 1948 in Jintoupu Village outside the Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou. Villagers said it was dug up from the foundation of the city wall.



The tombstone marker in the picture below was built into the east wall of a vegetable market near the South Drill Ground in Quanzhou in the autumn of 1953. It is said to have been bought when the market purchased stones from the city wall foundation for construction. It was removed in the 1990s when the market was rebuilt. The inscription is a verse from the Quran (28:88).







It was found in 1954 in Jintoupu Village outside the Tonghuai Gate at the East Gate of Quanzhou.



It was found in 1957 in a field between the Small East Gate and Jintoupu Village in Quanzhou. The content is a verse from the Quran (39:74).













It was purchased in 1949 from a stonemason's shop at the East Gate of Quanzhou.





The tombstone base in the picture below was found in 1948 at Jintoupu Village outside the Tonghuai Gate of Quanzhou's East Gate. In 1973, Liu Wanru, the widow of Mr. Wu Wenliang, donated it to the Quanzhou Cultural Relics Management Committee. It features Quranic verses (55:26-27).



The tombstone base in the picture below was found in 1948 in Tingdian Village, 3 kilometers outside Quanzhou's South Gate. It features Quranic verses (89:29-30).



The tombstone base in the picture below was found in 1938 inside the city wall of Quanzhou's East Gate. It features a Quranic verse (30:11).





Lintel stone of a gongbei

Besides tombstones, Sumeru-pedestal style stone tombs, and Sumeru-pedestal altar-style stone tombs, the Maritime Museum also houses another type of religious stone carving: the lintel stone of a gongbei (a domed tomb for a Sufi saint). Unfortunately, only the lintel stone has been found so far, so we do not know what the original gongbei looked like.

The item in the picture below was dug up in 1946 from the foundation of Quanzhou's South Gate. The front is inscribed with Quranic verses (9:21-22), and the beginning mentions 'minbar,' which is the pulpit inside a mosque, though its specific meaning here is unclear.



The item in the picture below was found in 1958 in a villager's home not far from the South Gate of Quanzhou. The villager said he found it deep in the city wall foundation while helping dig at the South Gate between 1946 and 1948. I originally wanted to take them home to build a wall, but I left them behind because their shapes made them hard to stack. The text reads, "(Every living thing) will die, (He is the Everlasting) who does not die."



The image below shows the pivot stone from a gongbei lintel. It was found in a resident's home near the south gate city wall of Quanzhou in 1959, and it is said to have been taken when the south city gate was torn down between 1946 and 1948. The left square of the stone carving features a relief of a camellia branch, the right square features a relief of a peony branch, and the back features a relief of a melon-petal-shaped door pivot. The text reads, "If anyone in this world could live forever, the Messenger of Allah would be the one to live forever in this world." No one can escape death, for the Prophet Muhammad faced the decree of death."



The image below shows a lintel stone from a gongbei tomb, with a relief of a peony branch on the right side. The stone carving was originally laid on a grain-drying ground on the south side of the street in Jintoupu Village, outside Tonghuai Gate at the east gate of Quanzhou. It was moved to the Maritime Museum for preservation in 1978.



The altar-style stone tomb with a pedestal base (xumizuo) restored by Mr. Wu Wenliang. Quanzhou has found many tomb wall stones and some tomb roof stones, but so far, no complete altar-style stone tomb with a pedestal base (xumizuo) from the faith has been discovered. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Islamic Art Guide: Museum of Islamic Art in Cairo (Part 1) is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear, natural English. The account focuses on Cairo, Islamic Art, Museum Travel while preserving the names, places, food, photos, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In the 19th century, Egypt placed great importance on Pharaonic art, but appreciation for Islamic art lagged behind. In 1880, Tewfik Pasha, the sixth ruler of the Muhammad Ali dynasty, finally established the first museum of Islamic art.

In 1881, Tewfik Pasha approved the creation of the Committee for the Preservation of Arab Monuments. The arcades of the abandoned Al-Hakim Mosque inside the northern gate of Cairo were used as a temporary exhibition hall to display hundreds of artifacts. In 1884, a two-story building was constructed in the mosque courtyard to house 900 artifacts. In 1887, the museum was named the Museum of Arab Antiquities. By 1895, the collection had grown to 1,641 items, and the museum space reached capacity. In 1902, the new Mamluk-style museum building was officially completed, which is the building we see today.

The Cairo Museum of Islamic Art building once featured complex decorative designs inspired by architecture from various periods of Islamic history. In 2014, a car bomb attack targeting the Cairo police headquarters across the street caused severe damage to the museum. Nearly 30 percent of the artifacts were damaged, and the exterior wall decorations were also destroyed. After three years of restoration, the museum reopened in 2017.



















The hall after the entrance provides a general introduction, showcasing a selection of unique Islamic artifacts from different perspectives.

An 8th-century Umayyad dynasty Quran in Kufic script from Egypt, written in brown ink on parchment.



An enameled water jug and basin from the 19th-century Qajar dynasty of Iran, featuring Persian-style figures and floral patterns.





The oldest surviving key to the Kaaba, made in 1363-4, belonging to the Egyptian Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Sha'ban (reigned 1363-77).





An 18th-century Ottoman qibla indicator, made by the manufacturer Barun al-Mukhtar during the reign of Sultan Mahmud I (reigned 1730-54). It shows the appearance of the Sacred Mosque (Masjid al-Haram) after the 1629 Ottoman renovation, a structure that remained until 1955.







A 15th-century Mamluk-period mosque glass lamp from Egypt, bearing the name of Emir Safy al-Din Shaykhu.



After passing through the hall, the exhibition continues with Islamic artifacts arranged in chronological order.

Early days of the faith.

A wood carving panel from Egypt during the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century.



A wooden chest panel inlaid with ivory and bone from Egypt during the Tulunid dynasty in the 9th century.







An ivory plaque with floral carvings from Egypt during the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th to 8th centuries.



A wood carving panel with floral decorations from Egypt or Syria during the Umayyad Caliphate in the 8th century.









An underglaze painted ceramic plate from Iraq during the Abbasid Caliphate in the 8th to 9th centuries.





A stucco carving panel in the Samarra style from Iraq during the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century. Samarra is located on the east bank of the Tigris River and served as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate from 836 to 892.



Fatimid Caliphate.

A 10th-century Kufic script stucco window frame from the Western Palace of the Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo. It is truly a masterpiece of the museum; you can see its size by comparing it to the child in the bottom right corner. The Fatimid palace in Cairo was built in 970 and was divided into two parts: the Eastern Palace and the Western Palace. The Western Palace was smaller and originally built for the Fatimid princess Sitt al-Mulk, then renovated by the Caliph in 1064. In 1284-1285, the Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun built a massive complex on the site of the Fatimid Western Palace. The hospital within the complex used some architectural elements from the Fatimid Western Palace, and this window frame came from the Qalawun Hospital.







A ceramic plate from Egypt during the Fatimid Caliphate in the 10th to 11th centuries, depicting various music and banquet scenes.









A ceramic plate from Egypt during the Fatimid period in the 11th century, depicting a rider holding a falcon.





A ceramic plate from Egypt during the Fatimid Caliphate in the 11th to 12th centuries, showing two people performing the traditional Egyptian stick fighting, Tahtib.



This 11th-century stucco mural from Egypt dates to the Fatimid dynasty and comes from the wall of a Fatimid-era bathhouse.









This small wooden prayer niche (mihrab) from 10th-11th century Fatimid Egypt features inscriptions with Shia content.







This 10th-11th century Fatimid Egyptian ceramic plate shows an image of the Prophet Isa (Jesus), which serves as evidence of the religious tolerance of that time.



This 11th-century Fatimid Egyptian ceramic plate is inscribed with the name of the commander Ghaban.





This 11th-century Fatimid Egyptian ceramic plate features a griffin design. The image of the griffin can be traced back to ancient Egyptian art from 3000 BC, later spreading to West Asia and the Mediterranean region. Because the lion rules the land and the eagle rules the sky, the griffin, which combines the features of both, became a symbol of nobility and power.











This 11th-century Fatimid Egyptian ceramic plate features images of humans, animals, and birds.





This 11th-century Fatimid Egyptian marble carving features Kufic calligraphy.





These stucco windows and wooden doors from the Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque in Cairo date to the late Fatimid period in 1160. The Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque is located outside the south gate of the old city of Cairo and was commissioned by the Fatimid vizier Tala'i ibn Ruzzik, who was the last powerful and capable vizier of the Fatimid dynasty. The Al-Salih Tala'i Mosque was completed only 11 years before the fall of the Fatimid dynasty, making it the last surviving building from the Fatimid era.











This wooden door from the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo dates to the Fatimid period in 1010 and was commissioned by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who reigned from 996 to 1021. Al-Hakim was the first Fatimid caliph born in Cairo, an important imam in the history of Ismaili Shia Islam, and a central figure in the Druze faith. At that time, the city of Fustat on the south side of old Cairo was a densely populated Sunni city, while the newly built city of Cairo served as the capital of the Fatimid dynasty and the center of Ismaili Shia Islam. The Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo is the city's official congregational mosque, where the caliph would deliver the khutbah sermon every Friday during Jumu'ah prayer.





The 12th-century Fatimid-era wooden prayer niche (mihrab) and wooden doors inside the Sayyida Nafisa mausoleum in Cairo. Sayyida Nafisa (762-824) was the great-granddaughter of Imam Hasan, the grandson of the Prophet. She was a famous Egyptian scholar of hadith who served as a mentor to Imam Shafi'i and provided him with financial support.

The Nafisa mausoleum is located in Cairo's famous City of the Dead. It was first built during the Abbasid period and later renovated and rebuilt during the Fatimid period. Nafisa was the first descendant of Imam Ali to be honored during the Fatimid period. As a Sunni and a descendant of Ali, she helped promote reconciliation between the Sunni and Shia populations within the Fatimid dynasty.









Ayyubid dynasty

A 12th-century wooden chest from the Hussein Mosque in Cairo. The Hussein Mosque is located across from the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo. It was first built in 1154 and is said to house the head of Imam Hussein.







A 13th-century wooden carving from the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt.







A 1213 marble slab from the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt inscribed with the name of Sultan Al-Kamil. Al-Kamil was the fifth sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty. During his reign, he defeated the Fifth Crusade, but he handed Jerusalem over to the Crusaders for ten years during the Sixth Crusade.



Marble slabs from the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt dated 1184 and 1187, inscribed with the name of Sultan Saladin. Saladin was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. During the Third Crusade, he launched a series of military campaigns against the Crusaders in the Levant and recaptured Jerusalem, restoring Muslim rule in the region.



Wooden panels and doors made in 1178 during the Ayyubid period, found in the mausoleum of Imam Shafi'i in Cairo. Imam Shafi'i was the founder of the Shafi'i school of law and one of the four great imams of Sunni Islam. Imam Shafi'i arrived in Cairo in 813 and passed away there in 819. Sultan Saladin built his mausoleum in 1178, which features exquisite wood carvings inside. These include complex geometric patterns, scripture, and an introduction to the life of Imam al-Shafi'i.







A marble slab from the 12th-century Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt, featuring carvings of griffins and creatures with human heads and bird bodies.





Stucco carvings from the 13th-century Ayyubid dynasty at the Al-Kamil Madrasa in Cairo. The Al-Kamil Madrasa was built in 1225 by the Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in the northern part of the former Fatimid Western Palace in Old Cairo, and it was one of Egypt's educational centers during the 13th and 14th centuries.





A flint window from the 13th-century Ayyubid dynasty at the Sayf ibn Yazan tomb in Cairo.



Mamluk Dynasty.

A marble slab from the 14th-century Mamluk period at the Sarghatmish Madrasa in Cairo. The Sarghatmish Madrasa was built in 1356 by order of the Mamluk Emir General Sirghitmish. In the 1350s, Sirghitmish was the most powerful emir of the Mamluk dynasty.





A copper candlestick inscribed with the name of the Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, who reigned from 1299 to 1309.



A copper candlestick inscribed with the name of the Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay, who reigned from 1468 to 1496, donated by the Sultan to the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. Although Sultan Qaitbay built many structures in Cairo, his greatest achievement was the restoration of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. After a fire at the Prophet's Mosque in 1481, Sultan Qaitbay rebuilt the tomb of the Prophet from a wooden structure into a brick one, added metal railings, and donated many chandeliers and candlesticks to the mosque.





A copper candlestick inlaid with silver from the 14th to 15th-century Mamluk dynasty.



A copper candlestick inscribed with the name of the wife of the Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay.



A copper incense burner inlaid with gold and silver from the 14th-century Mamluk dynasty.





A wooden door from the 13th-century Mamluk period at the Salihiyya Madrasa in Cairo. The Ayyubid Sultan As-Salih Ayyub founded the Salihiyya Madrasa in 1242, and it was one of Egypt's most famous centers of education during the 13th and 14th centuries.





A 14th-century Mamluk-era wooden cabinet from Egypt, inlaid with painted ivory decorations.







Above is a 13th-14th century Mamluk double-headed eagle marble carving from Egypt, and below is a 13th-century marble carving featuring the lion emblem of the Mamluk Sultan Baybars I (reigned 1260-1277). Baybars was the fourth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty and a tough military leader who defeated invasions by the Crusaders and the Mongol army.







A glass lamp from a 14th-century Mamluk-era mosque in Egypt.









A 14th-century Mamluk-era wooden Quran box and table inlaid with ebony and ivory from the Umm al-Sultan Sha'ban Madrasa in Cairo. The Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Sha'ban ordered the construction of the madrasa in 1368-9 to honor his mother, who was on a pilgrimage (hajj) at the time.



Two Mamluk-era wood carvings; the first one bears the name of Sultan Qaitbay (reigned 1468-96). Qaitbay was one of the sultans who sponsored the most architecture in Mamluk history. Although the Mamluk dynasty was in decline, the situation remained relatively stable and commerce flourished under Sultan Qaitbay's rule.

The second carving bears the name of the Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri (reigned 1501-16). He was the second-to-last sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate. The Ottoman Sultan Selim I killed him in 1516, which marked the shift of control in the Middle East from the Mamluk dynasty to the Ottoman dynasty.



Components of a minbar (pulpit) from the 14th-century Mamluk-era Al-Khatiri-Boulaq mosque in Egypt.





A 15th-century Mamluk-era stucco window from Egypt.



A wooden ceiling with carvings of the name of Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay (reigned 1468-96) inside the Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo.







Tiles on the Qaitbay fountain (sabil) in Cairo. Sultan Qaitbay built the Qaitbay fountain (sabil) in 1479. It was Cairo's first independent fountain-primary school (sabil-kuttab) building, a structure that became very common during the later Ottoman period.



A tile featuring the name of the Mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Janbalat, who reigned from 1500 to 1501.



A 15th-century tile from the Mamluk dynasty.



A 15th-century Mamluk dynasty marble slab decorated with mother-of-pearl mosaic.



A 14th to 15th-century Mamluk dynasty marble slab with geometric patterns. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: This first Singapore article introduces Indian Muslim culture through mosques, streets, migration history, food, and everyday community life. It keeps the original travel sequence and cultural facts while using simple English for global readers.

Since the British arrived in Singapore in 1819, Indian Muslims have continuously come to the island as laborers, merchants, and soldiers. After the 20th century, more Indian Muslims settled in Singapore. Most were Tamils from the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India, but there were also Gujaratis from western India, Malabaris from the southwest, and even Dawoodi Bohras and Ahmadis. Over time, the diverse and integrated Indian Muslim culture has become an important part of Singaporean culture. This time, I will take you to experience Singapore's Indian Muslim culture by visiting various Indian mosques, tasting Indian food, and touring the Indian Heritage Centre and the Indian Muslim Heritage Centre.

Indian mosques and shrines (gongbei) in Chinatown.

Al-Abrar Mosque is located on Telok Ayer Street in Singapore's Chinatown. It was built in 1827 by Tamil Muslims from the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India. They were also known as Chulias and mostly worked as merchants or money changers in Chinatown at the time, so this place is also called the Chulia Mosque.

Al-Abrar Mosque is one of Singapore's oldest mosques. It started as a thatched hut, was rebuilt as a brick building with Indian features between 1850 and 1855, and was renovated into its current appearance between 1986 and 1989. The mosque sits in a row of shophouses on Telok Ayer Street and blends seamlessly with the surrounding buildings. The main entrance has two octagonal minarets topped with star and crescent symbols. The interior features European neoclassical design elements, including Doric columns and French-style shutters. Today, the mosque continues to serve the Indian Muslim community. Muslims from other ethnic groups working nearby also come here for worship, especially during the Friday congregational prayer (Jumu'ah).



















Jamae Mosque is located on South Bridge Road in Singapore's Chinatown. It was the main congregational mosque built by the Chulias in Chinatown, and like Al-Abrar Mosque, it is also known as a Chulia mosque.

Jamae Mosque was founded in 1826 and rebuilt into its current form between 1830 and 1835. The mosque's main gate has a distinct South Indian style. It features two seven-story towers on either side, each with a pair of niches on every level, and a central design modeled after a traditional Indian fortress gate. The design is very intricate. The main prayer hall features the neoclassical style typical of Singapore's colonial era, the same style used for the Old Parliament House built during the same period.

Today, Jamae Mosque remains a place of worship for Chulia Muslims and is one of the few mosques in Singapore that offers religious classes in the Tamil language. This was also my first time seeing the walls of a main prayer hall inscribed in three languages: Arabic, English, and Tamil.



















The Nagore Dargha mosque (Nagore Dargha) is located on Telok Ayer Street, not far from the Al-Abrar Mosque. It was built by the Chulia people between 1828 and 1830 and serves as an important Sufi shrine (gongbei) for the Chulia community in Singapore.

The Nagore Dargha mosque was built to honor the famous 16th-century Indian Sufi saint, Syed Shahul Hamid. Shahul Hamid arrived in the town of Nagore in the Tamil Nadu state of southeastern India in 1533 to preach, and he passed away there in 1570. Legend says he performed many miracles in Nagore and even healed the king of the Vijayanagara Empire in India. To honor Shahul Hamid, locals built a shrine (gongbei) over his tomb. It later became an important Sufi center for Tamil Muslims, and many sailors and seafarers would visit the shrine to offer dua for a safe journey before heading out to sea.

After Tamil Muslims immigrated to Penang and Singapore in the 19th century, they built a shrine in each city to honor the saint, modeling the architecture after the original shrine in Nagore. The Singapore shrine uses an eclectic style, featuring a 14-tier square minaret with niches on the outside, and Doric-style pilasters, arches, and large French-style windows on the inside.

In 2011, the Nagore Dargha mosque became the Indian Muslim Heritage Centre, which provides a detailed introduction to the history and culture of Indian Muslims in Singapore.





















A Quran (Guerani) copied around 1900, which uses a rare linen binding method.



An introduction to the Arwi script. Arwi is a script that uses Arabic letters to write the Tamil language, similar to the Xiao'erjing (xiaojing) used by Hui Muslims. The Arwi script includes 13 additional letters not found in the Arabic alphabet.





Items from an Indian Muslim wedding in Singapore during the 20th century.





Tamil language works by Singaporean Tamil Muslims.



Daily items used by Indian Muslims in Singapore.



Items brought by Muslim families who arrived in Singapore from Kadayanallur and Tenkasi in South India after World War I.



The India of Little India

Mosques, food, and the Indian Heritage Centre

Little India is the busiest and most crowded place I visited in Singapore. It feels bigger and more like India than the Little Indias in Kuala Lumpur and Penang. Along the sides of the covered walkways (qilou) are various Indian restaurants, flower shops, and grocery stores, with many people of Indian descent busy shopping.

Unlike Chinatown or Kampong Glam, Little India was not designated for the Indian community by Sir Stamford Raffles. It was known as Serangoon until the 1980s. In the 1820s, the British built lime pits and brick kilns along Serangoon Road, and Indian laborers began working there. After the brick kilns closed in 1860, Serangoon developed a cattle industry, followed by the establishment of slaughterhouses, tanneries, and milk vendors. These industries attracted more Indians to settle here, along with others who worked nearby as port laborers and junior office clerks.

The British colonial authorities began building covered walkways (qilou) in Serangoon in the 1920s. More Indian immigrants arrived to open shops selling Indian saris, spices, and flowers, and the layout of Little India was officially formed. After Singapore was established in 1965, the government carried out urban renewal in Serangoon to improve living conditions for the local Indian residents. In the 1980s, to promote tourism, Singapore officially named the area Little India.



















Abdul Gafoor Mosque is located at the southern end of Little India. It dates back to 1859, and in 1907, it was rebuilt into its current structure by Shaik Abdul Gafoor, a South Indian Tamil Muslim who worked as a chief clerk at a law firm. Abdul Gafoor raised funds by building shophouses near the mosque, some of which still stand today.

Abdul Gafoor Mosque blends Saracenic (Mughal Revival) style with Neoclassical style, featuring complex arch designs and a dome inspired by ancient Roman architecture. It is very interesting that you can see a basement inside the main prayer hall. It was only rediscovered in 1998, and after renovations, the hall can now accommodate 1,200 people.

The original congregation of Abdul Gafoor Mosque mainly consisted of Tamils from South India and Baweanese people from Bawean Island in East Java. At that time, many Tamils worked nearby as merchants and port laborers, while many Baweanese worked as horse trainers and grooms at the adjacent racecourse. The mosque installed electric lighting in 1928, making it the first mosque in Singapore to have electric lights.



















Today, Abdul Gafoor Mosque continues to serve the South Indian Tamil Muslim community in Singapore and offers religious classes in the Tamil language. This is also one of the few Hanafi mosques in Singapore, where the way of performing worship is the same as that of Hui Muslims, unlike the Shafi'i school followed by the Malay people. The prayer time here is one hour later than in other Shafi'i mosques. At other times, you can see some Muslims who follow the Shafi'i school forming their own separate prayer group at the back of the main hall, which is a very unique scene in Singapore.













At the Indian restaurant by the mosque entrance, everyone drinks lamb bone broth (yangtang) after namaz. It is very comfortable to have a bowl on a rainy day.







Opposite Abdul Gafoor Mosque, at the northern end of Little India, is Angullia Mosque, which was established by Gujarati Muslims from western India. The Angullia family came to Singapore from Gujarat state in the 19th century to do business. In the late 19th century, Mohammed Salleh Eussoofjee Angullia accumulated great wealth through the trade of spices, sugar, timber, and tableware, becoming a prominent figure in Singapore's Indian Muslim community. In 1890, the Angullia family donated the land, and Angullia Mosque was built in 1892. The Angullia family has managed the mosque ever since.

Angullia Mosque was rebuilt in 1970 and expanded again in 2020 to its current appearance. Only the gatehouse built in 1890 has been preserved to this day. Angullia Mosque is the mosque where I have seen the largest number of people praying in Singapore. As the time approached, a queue formed outside the ablution area. People filled the entire main hall, and those who arrived late had to wait outside because they could not get in. After namaz, the imam immediately told everyone to leave in an orderly manner, and the people waiting outside would form a new prayer group after everyone left.

















There are water-saving signs in the ablution area, and similar hadith are posted in several places. I think they are quite meaningful.



If you want to experience Indian halal food in Singapore's Little India, the most convenient place is Tekka Centre (zhujiao basha). It has a row of stalls all run by Indian Muslims, and the prices are very cheap. We first drank a bowl of lamb trotter curry soup, which was hot and perfect for a rainy day. Then we ate freshly made almond flatbread (badam naan) with minced lamb curry. Many people eat it this way, tearing off the flatbread to dip into the curry and eating it bit by bit, finally wiping up every last drop of the sauce.

Tekka Centre was first built in 1915. In the 1930s, it became popular for its wide variety of fresh meat, vegetables, and seafood, and was known to the public as the 'People's Market'. The current building was finished in 1981, and most of the stall owners inside have been running their businesses for two or three generations.



















I had a cup of pulled tea (teh tarik) at the Tekka Centre, then looked around at the Indian clothing on the second floor. The saris are all very sparkly, and there are tailor shops where you can buy fabric and have clothes made on the spot.















If you want to learn more about the history and culture of Singapore's Indian community, I highly recommend visiting the Indian Heritage Centre in Little India. The main exhibition hall is organized by timeline and covers five parts: early contact, origins and migration, early Indian communities in Singapore and Malaya, the social and political awakening of Indians in Singapore and Malaya, and the contributions of Indians to Singapore. Of course, this includes the culture of Singapore's Indian Muslims.





A map showing the migration of Tamils from the Coromandel Coast in southeastern India and Sri Lanka to Singapore and Malaya.



Several areas where Indian communities lived in Singapore during the 19th and 20th centuries.



A group portrait of Singaporean Indians with the Angullia Mosque in Little India in the background.



The luggage that Indian immigrants brought with them when they first arrived in Singapore, along with a passport and family photo belonging to a Muslim merchant who came to Singapore from Gujarat, India, in 1936.







A set of clay figurines of 19th-century Indian merchants.



Clothing worn by Tamil Muslims from the Coromandel Coast of southeastern India in the mid-18th century.





Velvet Arabic calligraphy embroidery from Andhra Pradesh, India, dating to the 20th century.



Indian book stands (rehal) from the 19th and 20th centuries.



Calligraphy from the Deccan region of India, dated 1600.



Various traditional Indian hats from the 20th century.



The Talapa of the Chetti people in Malacca, which is a type of batik headwrap.



The Khoja Turban worn by the Ismaili Shia Khoja people from Gujarat, India. Khoja comes from the Persian words 'Khwaja' or 'Hodja'. They began converting from Hinduism to Islam in the 13th century, and while they hold a Muslim identity, they have kept strong Indian caste customs.





Headwear worn by grooms and boys during circumcision in the mid-20th century.



A 19th-century portrait of Indian Muslims.



A 19th-century procession of Shia Muslims in India during Ashura. On the right is a model of the tombs of Imam Hussein and Hassan called Ta'ziya, and you can also see Alam flags.



An Alam flagpole carried by Shia Muslims in South India during an Ashura procession in the 19th century.





The tiled facade of a mosque in Multan, Pakistan, from 1897-1898, made using the traditional local Kashikari tile-firing technique. This type of tile decoration originated in the Mughal Empire and was influenced by Persian and Sufi cultures.









Indians in Kampong Glam.

Mosques and restaurants.

Kampong Glam is the first planned Muslim community in Singapore. In 1822, Sir Stamford Raffles gave Kampong Glam to Sultan Hussein Muhammad Shah of Johor. Besides the Sultan and his 600 family members, Kampong Glam was home to many Muslim groups at the time, including the Bugis, Arabs, Javanese, and Baweanese people. During the same period, Indian Muslims began moving to Kampong Glam for business. By the early 20th century, they opened restaurants here, the two most important being Victory and Zam Zam on North Bridge Road.

Zam Zam opened in 1908 and Victory in 1910. Both specialize in stuffed flatbread (murtabak) and have been competing for over 100 years. We tried the mutton murtabak at Victory. It tasted more like the griddle cakes (laobing) from Northern China and was not as crispy as the ones we had in Penang. view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Harbin Tatar Mosque preserves part of the citys Muslim history, tied to Tatar migration, old neighborhoods, and religious life in northeast China. This article follows the story of the mosque and its community memory while keeping the original photos and facts in order.

After Russia occupied Vladivostok in 1860, they began planning a railway across the Qing Dynasty to reach this Pacific port more quickly. In 1896, Li Hongzhang signed the Secret Treaty of Alliance between the Qing Empire and the Russian Empire, naming the line the Great Qing Eastern Railway (Dongqing Railway). After 1920, it was renamed the Chinese Eastern Railway (Zhongdong Railway).

Construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway began in August 1897 with Harbin as the center, and it officially opened to traffic in 1903. During this time, many Tatars from Russia came to the railway line to make a living. They opened small shops, and after earning some money, other Tatars followed them there.

As the center of the Chinese Eastern Railway, Tatars began settling in Harbin in 1901 and built the first wooden mosque that same year. As the Tatar population grew, they rebuilt a brick mosque in 1906. In 1907, they hired İnayetullah Seli Ahmed as imam. He ordered books and magazines from Russia and opened the first Tatar community library.

Imam İnayetullah also served as the principal of the Harbin Tatar Elementary School. The school taught religious knowledge and general subjects, and offered courses in the Tatar and Russian languages. Teachers at the school included the Tatar poet and playwright Husain Gabdyush, who was actively involved in theatrical productions for the Harbin troupe during the 1920s and 1930s. Another teacher, Madina (Asyakaeva) Seliahmet, was a former instructor of higher women's natural science courses in Saint Petersburg. After immigrating to Harbin, she married the younger brother of Imam İnayetullah.

After the October Revolution broke out in 1917, the number of Tatars immigrating to Harbin increased, reaching over a thousand in the 1920s. Most of them made a living through the fur, textile, and clothing trades. To commemorate the 1,000th anniversary of the conversion of their ancestors, the Volga Bulgars, to the faith in 922 AD, the Tatars in Harbin decided to build a new mosque. Construction of the new mosque began in 1923 under the leadership of Imam İnayetullah, but work stopped in September 1924 when the imam passed away. After that, construction stalled due to political instability and poor financial management by the Harbin Tatar Religious and National Association. In 1936, the new imam, Münir Hasibullah, traveled throughout all the Tatar settlements in the Far East to collect donations (niyat), finally allowing the Millennium Mosque to be officially completed and opened on October 8, 1937.



















An old photograph of the Harbin Tatar Mosque taken in 1940, now held in the Waseda University Library, preserves a precious image of the Tatars during Friday prayer (Jumu'ah).















Additionally, the author of the book The Harbin Files, Mara Moustafine, is of Tatar-Jewish-Russian descent and spent her childhood in Harbin. The book writes that her grandfather, Mukhammedzhan Mustafin, originally lived in a village near Kazan in the middle reaches of the Volga River. He came to Harbin in 1920 to work as an electrician and repairman for wealthy people and large companies. Every Friday, Mukhammedzhan went to the Harbin Tatar mosque to perform Jumu'ah. He was an active member of the Harbin Tatar community and served on the community association board for several years. Every year during Eid al-Adha (Qurban Festival), Mukhammedzhan would take his son Alimzhan to the mosque to perform Eid prayers, and then they would go to watch the traditional Tatar horse racing held at the Harbin racecourse.

After the Soviet Union marched into Northeast China in 1945, the Tatars who had immigrated to Harbin to escape the Soviet Union faced harsh treatment. Over the next 10 years, most chose to immigrate to the United States, Canada, and Turkey, while some, like Mara Mustafin's family, immigrated to Australia. By 1960, there were fewer than five Tatars left in Harbin, and the Harbin Tatar community was declared dissolved.





Further reading:

Specialty pastries of the Kazan Tatars

Kazan Kremlin and the National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan

Tatars in the city of Kazan

Performing Jumu'ah at the Historical Mosque of the Tatars in Moscow

Thirteen traditional mosques of the Kazan Tatars in Russia view all

Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi's Seventh City — Mughal Capital and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In my last article, The Sixth City of Delhi: The Birth of the Mughal Empire, I wrote about how Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, fell to his death from his library in the sixth city of Delhi, Dinpanah, in 1556. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Mughal History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In my last article, The Sixth City of Delhi: The Birth of the Mughal Empire, I wrote about how Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, fell to his death from his library in the sixth city of Delhi, Dinpanah, in 1556. His son, Emperor Akbar, moved the Mughal capital to Agra in 1558, and Delhi lost its status as the capital.

In 1628, Shah Jahan became the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire. Under his rule, Mughal architectural aesthetics reached a new height, and this period is widely recognized as the golden age of Mughal architecture. Besides building the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi between 1639 and 1648, naming it Shahjahanabad after himself. Shah Jahan made Shahjahanabad the capital of the Mughal Empire, aiming to show the grandeur and power of the empire.

Shahjahanabad is now known as Old Delhi and still keeps many historical sites and traditional neighborhoods. The most important site inside the city, the Red Fort, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2007.

The layout of Shahjahanabad was inspired by the ancient Persian city of Isfahan and inherited urban planning ideas from the Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri, which were built by the previous Mughal emperor, Akbar. The city has an irregular shape, with the eastern wall built along the course of the Yamuna River. The Yamuna River later changed its course and moved away from the walls, and the original riverbed is now the Delhi Inner Ring Road.

The city has two main roads: Chandni Chowk running east-west and Faiz Bazaar running north-south, with major commercial areas on both sides of the streets. The Red Fort, where the Mughal royal family lived, is located at the junction of these two main roads.



1858



1914

Table of Contents

1. Red Fort: 1639-1648

1. Lahore Gate

2. Chhatta Chowk (market)

3. Naubat Khana (drum house)

4. Diwan-i-Aam (public audience hall)

5. Rang Mahal (palace of the empresses)

6. Khas Mahal (emperor's private palace)

7. Diwan-i-Khas (private audience hall)

8. Hammam-e-Lal Qila (bathhouse)

9. Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid)

10. King's Tower (Shah Burj)

11. Life-Giving Garden (Hayat Bakhsh Bagh)

2. Jama Mosque: 1650-1656

3. Fatehpuri Mosque: 1650

4. Golden Mosque (Sunehri Masjid): 1751

5. Great Mosque (Kalan Masjid): 1387

6. Hauzwali Mosque: 15th century

1. Red Fort: 1639-1648

Shah Jahan decided to move the capital from Agra back to Delhi in 1638. On May 12, 1639, he ordered the construction of the Red Fort. The designer was Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, the architect who built the Taj Mahal.

On the north side of the Red Fort is the Salimgarh Fort, built by the Sur dynasty in 1546 (I introduced this in my previous article, 'The Sixth City of Delhi: The Birth of the Mughal Empire'). The Red Fort was designed to connect to Salimgarh Fort via a bridge, joining the two castles together.

In 1857, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, left the Red Fort and was arrested by the British army. He was tried at the Red Fort in 1858 and exiled to Yangon, marking the end of the Mughal Empire. Afterward, the Red Fort was used as a British military barracks. Most of the buildings were demolished. Only the marble structures in the far east survived because they were repurposed as barracks, offices, dormitories, and canteens.

After India's independence, the Red Fort continued to be used as an Indian Army barracks until 2003, when the Archaeological Survey of India was finally authorized to begin restoration. In 2009, the Archaeological Survey of India developed a comprehensive protection and management plan for the Red Fort under the direction of the Supreme Court.

The Red Fort viewed from east to west, painted in 1785.



The Red Fort viewed from east to west, painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



1. Lahore Gate

The Lahore Gate is the west gate of the Red Fort. It is named for facing the city of Lahore. During the reign of the sixth Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb (reigned 1658-1707), a barbican was added to the outside of the gate. Since 1947, the Prime Minister of India has stood at the Lahore Gate to deliver a speech every Indian Independence Day.





Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.











2. Chhatta Chowk (market)

After entering the Lahore Gate, you find a market called Chhatta Chowk. During the Mughal era, this was where silk and jewelry were sold to members of the royal family.







Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



(Optional) Image description

3. Naubat Khana (drum house)

After walking through the Chhatta Chowk market, you reach the outer courtyard of the Red Fort. The building in the center of the outer courtyard is called the Naubat Khana, which serves as the main gate to the inner court. Naubat Khana means 'drum house.' During the Mughal era, ceremonial music was played here five times a day, and everyone except members of the royal family had to dismount from their horses when they reached this point. After 1857, the British army destroyed the arcades on both sides of the Naubat Khana and the central pool, leaving only the central building.



Photographed in 1858 by British army officer Robert Christopher Tytler and his wife Harriet.













4. Diwan-i-Aam (public audience hall)

After passing through the Naubat Khana, you enter the inner courtyard of the Red Fort, where the Diwan-i-Aam stands directly in front of you. Diwan-i-Aam means 'Hall of Public Audience.' It was the place where the Mughal emperor met with the public to hear their concerns.







In the center of the hall is the throne where the emperor sat. The marble steps below the throne were where the prime minister (wazir) received petitions from the public.



The door behind the throne, painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.





5. Rang Mahal (palace of the empresses)

After entering the Diwan-i-Aam, you reach the harem section of the Red Fort. Rang Mahal means 'Palace of Colors.' It was the living quarters for the concubines of the Mughal emperor.







Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

A shallow canal called the Stream of Paradise (Nahr-i-Bihist) flows into the marble pool in front of the Rang Mahal. During the hot summer, the women of the Mughal royal family would stay in the basement of the Diwan-i-Aam to escape the heat.





Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

6. Khas Mahal (emperor's private palace)

To the north of the Rang Mahal is the Khass Mahal, which was the sleeping quarters of the Mughal emperor. The Rang Mahal was built of white marble. Its walls were originally inlaid with various jewels and the ceiling was gilded, but these features have not been preserved.







Painted by Sir Thomas Theophilus Metcalfe in 1843.

The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, ascends the throne in the Khas Mahal, painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1837 and 1838.



7. Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas)

North of the Khas Mahal is the Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas), where the Mughal emperor met with courtiers and state guests. The Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) means "private reception room." It is built of white marble and was once inlaid with various jewels, featuring the exquisite Peacock Throne in the center. The hall once had a ceiling inlaid with gold and silver, but these were later removed. The current ceiling was installed in 1911.

Outside the hall, there used to be red awnings, and the arches below were inscribed with verses by the famous Sufi master Amir Khusrow:

If there is a paradise on earth,

It is this, it is this, it is this.





Painted by Ghulam 'Ali Khan in 1817.









Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



The Peacock Throne in 1850.

8. Hammam-e-Lal Qila (bathhouse)

North of the Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) is the Red Fort Bathhouse (Hammam-e-Lal Qila), which was used by the Mughal royal family. The Red Fort Bathhouse (Hammam-e-Lal Qila) is a Turkish-style bath consisting of three sections: a children's bath, a dressing room, and a hot bath. Legend has it that the water flowing from the taps at that time was mixed with rose perfume.





Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

9. Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid)

The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) is west of the bathhouse. It was built by the sixth Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, between 1659 and 1660 for his second wife, Nawab Bai. Pearl (Moti) means "pearl." It is built of white marble, and its three domes were originally covered with gilded copper plates, which were lost after 1857.









Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



Painted by Vasily Vereshchagin in the late 1880s.

10. King's Tower (Shah Burj)

The northernmost part of the harem is a white marble pavilion built during the Aurangzeb period. Behind the pavilion is the Shahi Burj, the northeast corner tower of the Red Fort, which means "Imperial Tower." Inside the tower is a hydraulic system that carries water from outside the Red Fort into its gardens and buildings.







Painted by Sir Thomas Metcalfe in 1843.

11. Life-Giving Garden (Hayat Bakhsh Bagh)

In the northwest part of the harem is the royal water garden Hayat Bakhsh Bagh, which means 'Life-Giving Garden'. Most of the garden's buildings were destroyed after 1857, and only three survive today.

At the center of the garden is the red sandstone building Zafar Mahal, built in 1842 by the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II. The building sits in a pool and was originally connected to the shore by a red sandstone bridge, but it was destroyed after 1857. After 1857, the British army used this area as a swimming pool.











Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

To the north and south of the garden are two white marble pavilions called Sawan and Bhadon, named after the months of July and August in the Indian rainy season, as the ladies of the Mughal palace loved to visit the garden during these two months. The pavilions have wall niches that held vases with golden flowers during the day and small oil lamps at night.





To the west of Hayat Bakhsh Bagh, there was originally another water garden called Mehtab Bagh, meaning 'Moon Garden,' but after 1857, the site was turned into a British military barracks, and now only ruins remain.



2. Jama Mosque: 1650-1656

The Jama Masjid mosque is located southwest of the Red Fort; it was built between 1650 and 1656 by order of Shah Jahan and served as the royal mosque of the Mughal Empire.

The mosque was built by more than 5,000 workers under the leadership of Shah Jahan's vizier (wazir) Saadullah Khan, costing over 1 million rupees. The mosque stands on a platform more than 9 meters above the ground and is made of red sandstone and marble, featuring a main hall connected by colonnades, two 40-meter-high minarets, and three gates. The east gate was reserved for the Mughal royal family and had a path that connected directly to the Delhi Gate of the Red Fort.

After 1857, the British seized the Jama Masjid mosque and stationed troops inside. They originally wanted to demolish the mosque, but they failed due to strong opposition, though the madrasa (Islamic school) on the south side of the mosque was destroyed as a result.















The mihrab in the center of the main hall indicates the direction of prayer toward Mecca:





Besides the main mihrab in the center, there is a smaller mihrab on each side.



During Jumu'ah, the imam stands on this stone platform to deliver the khutbah.



There is a tower at each of the four corners of the colonnade.







The east gate is the main entrance:





South Gate



North Gate



The water pool in the courtyard for wudu:





Jama means Jumu'ah, which refers to the Friday congregational prayer. The Jumu'ah mosque is usually the largest in the community, and the most important weekly prayer is held here every Friday at noon. I was lucky enough to attend a Friday Jumu'ah prayer at the Jama Mosque.

On the morning of Jumu'ah, more prayer rugs were already laid out in the courtyard.



People are performing wudu for the Jumu'ah prayer:



More and more people are arriving.







The imam leading the prayer climbs onto the stone platform.



After the prayer, people take photos:





3. Fatehpuri Mosque: 1650

Fatehpuri Mosque is located at the western end of Chandni Chowk, the main east-west road in Shahjahanabad. It was built in 1650 under the direction of Fatehpuri Begum, the wife of Shah Jahan. The mosque is in the classic Mughal style, built with red sandstone, featuring minarets on both sides and a main prayer hall in the middle. The main hall has seven arched bays, and the central iwan arch is topped with a Mughal-style dome.

















4. Golden Mosque (Sunehri Masjid): 1751

Sunehri Mosque is located south of the Red Fort. It was built in 1751 by Qudsia Begum, the wife of the twelfth Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah. After Muhammad Shah died, Qudsia Begum's son, Ahmad Shah Bahadur, succeeded to the throne, making Qudsia Begum the de facto ruler of the Mughal Empire between 1748 and 1754.

During her rule, Qudsia Begum built a series of structures in Delhi, and the Sunehri Mosque is the most understated in its architectural style. The mosque's dome was originally copper-plated, but during renovations in 1852, sandstone replaced the damaged copper plates.













5. Great Mosque (Kalan Masjid): 1387

Kalan Mosque is one of the very few mosques in Shahjahanabad that existed before the city was built. It was constructed in 1387 by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, the vizier of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351-1388) of the Delhi Sultanate's Tughlaq dynasty. It is believed to have been built to commemorate a Sufi saint.

The mosque has been in continuous use, so the interior has changed significantly.









6. Hauzwali Mosque: 15th century

Hauzwali Mosque is another mosque that existed before the city of Shahjahanabad was built. Because the ground level has changed so much over time, the bottom half of the mosque is now underground, leaving only the top parts of the arches and the mihrab visible. view all