Reposted from the web

Summary: What Does Allahu Akbar Mean? A Simple Muslim Explanation is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia around the world, the phrase "Allahu Akbar" is tossed around by political commentators, media outlets, and so-called security experts as a term that signals violence and. The account keeps its focus on Allahu Akbar, Muslim Faith, Islamic Terms while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.



Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia around the world, the phrase "Allahu Akbar" is tossed around by political commentators, media outlets, and so-called security experts as a term that signals violence and terrorism.

But what does this phrase actually mean? And what does it mean to the nearly 2 billion Muslims around the world?

Reposted from the web

Summary: What Does Allahu Akbar Mean? Meaning, Dua and Muslim Faith is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia in different parts of the world, political commentators, the media, and so-called security experts repeatedly use "Allahu Akbar" as a sign of violence and terrorism. The account keeps its focus on Allahu Akbar, Muslim Faith, Islamic Terms while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.



Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia in different parts of the world, political commentators, the media, and so-called security experts repeatedly use "Allahu Akbar" as a sign of violence and terrorism. But what does "Allahu Akbar" actually mean? What does it mean to the nearly two billion Muslims around the world?

From the moment of birth, when "Allahu Akbar" is whispered gently into a newborn's ear, to the lullabies that soothe them to sleep—Subhanallah, Walhamdulillah, Wala Ilaha Illallah, Wallahu Akbar—praise for Allah becomes the melody of our existence.

These are the words that connect us to Allah, who is infinite and beyond all imagination.

Allah is supreme, the maker of all things, the master of the universe, the exalted, the one, and the only.

He is beyond what any words can express and beyond everything that exists.

We recite "Allahu Akbar" more than a hundred times a day during the different parts of our namaz. We whisper it when we stretch in the morning or when we step out of our homes to start a new day. We often start a task with this phrase; it is a holy reset button. Sometimes we say it with joy and happiness because Allah is the greatest, and He gives us these precious, happy moments. Sometimes we say it in deep sadness to remind ourselves that Allah is greater than any difficulty we might face. But what is the essence of this phrase?

Allah is the greatest.

Allah is the greatest.

Let us break down the deep meaning of these two words.

If we translate it word for word, it means: Allah—He is—the greatest.

But to fully understand "Allahu Akbar," we must look deeper into the Arabic language.

The word Akbar comes from the three-letter root k-b-r (ك ب ر), which means great. These root letters also appear in words that describe nobility, grandeur, and power. The beauty of this root is its versatility, capturing the essence of everything grand and beyond human understanding.

In its grammatical form, Akbar is an ism tafdīl, a term in Arabic grammar that shows a comparative (greater) or superlative (greatest) meaning. Usually, when we say "Allahu Akbar," we are using the comparative form, which leaves the phrase beautifully open: "Allah is greater..."

Greater than what, you might ask? Greater than everything. Greater than our happiness and greater than our worldly pleasures. When we say this phrase in moments of frustration, stress, or disappointment, we are reminding ourselves that Allah is greater than any test we face. This is a deep connection between the heart and the infinite greatness of our Creator.

When the call to dua, the adhan, begins with "Allahu Akbar," it shows that this call is more important than anything we are currently doing.

It calls us to stop, refocus, and answer the divine invitation.

When we approach dua and raise our hands to start with "Allahu Akbar," we declare that this dua—this moment of connection with Allah—is now our center.

Allah is greater than everything we have left behind.

The Messenger of Allah ﷺ summarized this beautifully when he said: "Saying: Glory be to Allah (Subhan-Allah), all praise is due to Allah (Al-hamdu lillah), there is no god but Allah (La ilaha illallah), and Allah is the greatest (Allahu Akbar) is more beloved to me than everything the sun has ever shone upon." [Sahih Muslim 1409]

A world full of hope and meaning is contained in this simple yet profound phrase.

It constantly reminds us that no matter where we are in life—whether standing at the peak of joy or deep in the pit of despair—Allah is greater.

Allah's greatness encompasses everything, and in this greatness, we find our anchor, our hope, and our comfort.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Beijing — Mosques, Islamic New Year and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: July 30, 2022, was the Islamic New Year. Since it fell on a Saturday, I decided to go on a mosque-visiting trip. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Mosques, Islamic New Year, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

July 30, 2022, was the Islamic New Year. Since it fell on a Saturday, I decided to go on a mosque-visiting trip.

Dongzhimenwai Mosque

A great day starts with a good morning (bangda). I went to the Dongzhimenwai Mosque, which is relatively close to my home. Dongzhimenwai Mosque was originally called Erlizhuang Mosque. It was first built during the Yuan Dynasty and renovated during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty. In the late 1980s, Shougang Group and a Danish business partner built international apartments in Erlizhuang. Because of this, the mosque was moved one kilometer to the northwest and rebuilt. It was completed in 1991 and reopened in 1993.

The mosque currently houses a precious wooden carving of a dua, which is said to be an original piece from the Yuan Dynasty.













After finishing my namaz, I visited the morning market (xiaoshier) by the Liangma River outside Dongzhimen. I went there often last summer, but this was my first time this year. It felt like the items weren't as interesting as before.









After the market, I grabbed a quick breakfast at Bai Kui in Kuanjie, then went home to take a nap.



Knife-cut noodles (daoxiaomian) in Xiguanshi

I woke up in the morning and set off for the Qinghe Mosque, but the information was wrong and it was closed. I continued on to Xiguanshi in Changping.

I had knife-cut noodles (daoxiaomian) at Yiyuan Restaurant in Xiguanshi. They also serve corn noodles (yumigeluomian) and oat noodles (bashanyouman). Because the Hui Muslims of Xiguanshi were used to traveling the western routes as armed escorts during the Qing Dynasty, their dietary habits were influenced by the Jin dialect region. This makes them very different from Hui Muslims in other parts of Beijing. Eating a bowl of these Hui Muslim knife-cut noodles is a way to get a taste of the Qing Dynasty culture of traveling the western routes (zouxikou).









Street view of Xiguanshi



This meat flatbread (roushaobing) shop is also very famous.







Xiguanshi Mosque

After lunch, I performed my namaz at the Xiguanshi Mosque.

Xiguanshi Mosque was originally called the Guan Shi Village Mosque. It was first built in 1494 (the seventh year of the Hongzhi reign of the Ming Dynasty). The main hall was rebuilt in 1709 (the 48th year of Kangxi), the main gate in 1723 (the first year of Yongzheng), the hall rooms in 1732 (the tenth year of Yongzheng), and the kiln hall in 1761 (the 26th year of Qianlong). It continued to be renovated during the Guangxu period and the Republic of China.

On August 15, 1900, the Eight-Nation Alliance entered Beijing. Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor fled the city to the west, arriving in Xiguanshi at dusk. The Hui Muslims of Xiguanshi, led by clan elder Li Xilun, welcomed the imperial party south of the village. They led Cixi and her group to stay at the Xiguanshi Mosque, where they were received by Imam Cai Wanchun. According to the late Qing record 'Gengzi Guobian Ji' by Luo Dunrong, 'At dusk, they arrived at Guan Shi in Changping. The Emperor and the Empress Dowager had not eaten for a day.' The villagers offered them sorghum, which they ate with their hands. The Empress Dowager wept, and the Emperor wept as well. It was cold, and they could not find bedding. A village woman offered a cloth quilt that was still damp from washing. Afterward, Cixi slept in the main hall, the Emperor and his consorts slept in the side halls, and the rest of the party stayed in nearby civilian homes.

The next day, Li Xijun, the owner of the Xiguangyu Escort Agency in Xiguanshi, prepared twenty mule-drawn sedan chairs, along with silver ingots and grain for the imperial party. A villager named Yang Juchuan volunteered to lead the way, and Li Jintang provided an escort to the next stop. Wu Lu, a compiler at the Hanlin Academy who experienced the Gengzi Incident, wrote in his 'Hundred Sorrows Poems': 'The imperial carriage stopped at the ancient mosque, and the happy villagers offered their humble vegetables.' They donated a thousand pieces of gold for imperial use and transported a hundred loads of grain from their own stores. In times of hardship, they opened the channels for speech, and I read the imperial edict with tears streaming down my face. I sigh at the border officials who received such great favor, while they live in deep seclusion in their offices. "

Two years later, when Cixi returned to Beijing, she granted silver for the renovation of Xiguanshi. She also had glazed tiles, roof treasures, and ridge beasts fired at the Liulihe Imperial Kiln to be gifted to the Xiguanshi Mosque and the mosque in Gaotou Village, Wuji County, which was the hometown of Imam Cai Wanchun. Cixi inscribed a plaque for the mosque that read 'Spiritual Inspiration Manifested,' the Guangxu Emperor inscribed 'Loyalty Dedicated to the Sovereign,' Prince Su Shanqi inscribed 'Pure Emptiness Tastes of the Way,' and Prince Li inscribed 'Profound and Infinite.' She also granted Yang Juchuan, who helped lead the way, the title of 'Marquis of Leading the Way,' and Li Jintang, who helped with the escort, the rank of a second-grade official in Zhejiang. Many others, including village elder Li Xilun and Imam Cai Wanchun, were awarded fifth, sixth, and seventh-grade official headwear.

In 1958, when a communal canteen was set up, the plaques in the main hall were taken down and used as cutting boards. Their whereabouts are now unknown. After the 1960s, the main hall was turned into a warehouse, and all the plaques and couplets were burned. All buildings except for the main hall and the main gate were demolished until it was restored and reopened in 1982.































The 1879 stone tablet titled 'Record of Li Yongxin's Donation for Annual Repairs in Xiguanshi Village' documents how Li Yongxin donated land and silver to renovate the mosque. The author of the tablet, Ma Zhaoqing, was a famous Qing Dynasty scholar. His compilation, the 'Changping Outer Gazetteer,' corrected and supplemented the 'Changping Prefecture Gazetteer,' making it a valuable historical source. Ma Zhaoqing also wrote a couplet for the Xiguanshi main hall: 'Since the Tang Dynasty, thirty volumes of treasure have been received, pure and clean;' Follow Allah's commands, observe the five daily namaz, and lead the people to prosperity and peace. Unfortunately, it was destroyed in the 1960s.







The 1909 stele titled 'Public Record of Donations for the Xiguan Mosque School' notes that during the Boxer Rebellion, Xiguanshi was not only spared from harassment but also received rewards for hosting Empress Dowager Cixi and her entourage during their flight west. Consequently, local elders donated money and land to support the mosque and its school.

The stele mentions that many donors held official ranks. Among them was Li Jintang, owner of the Xiguangyu Security Firm, who had protected Cixi. He later followed a general to oversee Xinjiang. When a Uyghur uprising broke out in Ili, Li Jintang returned to his hometown of Xiguanshi via Russia under the protection of Uyghurs, and he passed away shortly after.

Dongyuhe Sheep Shop Public Fund

Li Jintang, Second-Rank Official with Peacock Feather, Zhejiang Expectant Circuit Intendant

Li Mingda, Fifth-Rank Official with Peacock Feather

Li Guozhen, Fifth-Rank Official

Li Xilun, Fifth-Rank Official with Blue Feather, Candidate for County Magistrate

Li Baochen, Sixth-Rank Official with Blue Feather

Li Yukuan, Li Xitian, Li Xi'en, Li Xihou, Hai Mingzhu, and Li Sheng, all Sixth-Rank Officials

Li Zhensheng, Seventh-Rank Official







Additionally, the tomb garden of the sage Bo Hazhi in Changping also contains a donation stele from 1909. It lists Hui Muslims from Xiguanshi who donated to the tomb, and some names overlap with those on the Xiguanshi stele:

Ma Jinsheng, Imam of the mosque

Zhang Jizong, Gao Zhaoming, and Li Chunze, Seventh-Rank Officials and religious leaders

Li Jintang, Second-Rank Official with Peacock Feather, Zhejiang Expectant Circuit Intendant

Yang Deqing, Third-Rank Official with Peacock Feather

Li Minghe, Li Mingda, and Li Fengrui, Fifth-Rank Officials with Peacock Feather

Li Baochen, Fifth-Rank Official with Blue Feather

Li Xilun, Fifth-Rank Official with Blue Feather, Candidate for County Magistrate

Huang Jinbao, Fifth-Rank Official

Li Qingyuan, Li Xichun, Li Xihou, and Li Xi'en, Sixth-Rank Officials

Li Qingzhen, Li Qing, Zhang Dahai, and Li Guishen, Seventh-Rank Officials

Li Xilin, Candidate for Prefect

Wen Shengkang and others

Ma Qi, graduate of the Shuntian Police Academy







Fayuan Mosque outside Deshengmen

I took the 919 bus from Shahe to its final stop outside Deshengmen, which was the perfect chance to visit the Fayuan Mosque.

The founding date of Fayuan Mosque is unknown. It was originally located on a slope north of Jiaochangkou outside Deshengmen. It was moved and expanded during the Kangxi era, and the main hall was expanded again during the Republic of China period, featuring four interconnected roofs and a four-cornered pavilion top.

The entrance to the main hall now displays a plaque reading 'All Things Return to Truth,' inscribed in 1928 by General Ma Fuxiang. In the late 1920s, Ma Fuxiang was living in Beijing. He studied Islamic classics deeply and donated money to help Muslims build schools. In 1928, he helped organize the Beiping Muslim Middle School, later renamed Northwest Public School, and donated over a dozen school buildings he had purchased in the backyard of the Dongsi Mosque to the Chengda Teachers' College.



















I bought two door hangings (mendu'er) at the mosque. These are quite old. The one in the picture below shows how they looked after hanging on the streets of Xiguanshi village for many years.







Digging for records at Fusheng Record Store

There is a long-standing record shop called Fusheng near Bingjiaokou outside Deshengmen. When I was a child, they were located in Ping'anli before moving to the area outside Deshengmen. After leaving the mosque, I bought two albums related to the faith at their shop.





One is a cut-out disc of early music from 1978-1982 by the Pakistani Sufi Qawwali master Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan is known as the 'King of Qawwali' and had a major influence on South Asian pop music. He was born in 1948 into a Punjabi Muslim family in Pakistan. It is said his family has passed down Qawwali music for nearly 600 years, singing mainly in Urdu and Punjabi.

Nusrat performed for the first time in London at the WOMAD festival in 1985, and after that, he toured all over the world. In the late 1980s, he signed with the British world music label Real World. He released a series of world music albums in the 1990s and collaborated with many different types of musicians, earning him the title of a pioneer of world music.

Unlike his later polished remix and fusion albums, this early collection features raw, traditional Sufi Qawwali music that was not yet well-known to the Western mainstream.

South Asian classical music is traditionally divided into different schools (gharānā), which are passed down steadily through the relationship between master and student. Nusrat belonged to the ancient Qawwal Bacchon school, founded in the late 13th century by Amir Khusrow, a sage of the Chisti Sufi order in Delhi, India. It developed and was passed down in Delhi, centered at the shrine (Nizamuddin Dargah) of the Sufi saint Nizamuddin, until it moved to Pakistan during the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. In 2018, I was lucky enough to experience traditional Qawwali music at a Sufi shrine in Delhi.













Another album is the English nasheed (nasheed) album Allah Knows, created in 2006 by South African Muslim musician Zain Bhikha for his son Rashid and all Muslim children approaching puberty.

Zain Bhikha was born in South Africa in 1974. He began releasing albums as a singer after 1994 and is very famous in the South African Muslim community. In the 1990s, the famous British singer Yusuf Islam (stage name Cat Stevens), who converted to Islam, began creating English nasheed music and received a great response. After hearing Zain's album, Yusuf invited him to London to collaborate.

In 2000, with Zain's help, Yusuf released the album A is for Allah for Muslim children, which is a representative album of modern English nasheed music. After this, Zain released a series of nasheed albums, the most famous of which is Mountains of Makkah, released after he returned from Hajj in 2004.

Nasheed means chanting in Arabic, and the themes are mostly about faith, religious history, and culture. Historically, there has been disagreement within the faith about whether music is allowed and how it should be used. Some Muslims believe that religious music should only be sung a cappella or accompanied by drums, while others believe that any instrument is fine as long as the performance and content do not violate the faith.

Historically, the most famous nasheed music is the Ta'zieh music of the Shia sect commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein and the South Asian Sufi Qawwali music. There is also Madih nabawi music, which is praise for the Prophet that circulates throughout the Arab world. After the 2000s, modern nasheed music began to develop everywhere. to Yusuf Islam and Zain Bhikha mentioned above, the Malaysian group Raihan has been the most famous nasheed group in Malaysia since the late 90s, and they were invited by the Queen of England to perform in the UK in 1997. In 2005, the Washington-based nasheed group Native Deen released the album Deen You Know, which combined American rap with nasheed music.







Zhengyuan Mosque

I rode my bike from outside Deshengmen to the Zhengyuan Mosque in Dongguanying Hutong inside Xizhimen.

The predecessor of Zhengyuan Mosque was the Beigouyan Mosque inside Xizhimen, which was built during the Daoguang reign. After 1946, Beigouyan was renamed Zhaodengyu Road, so it was also called Zhaodengyu Road Mosque. In 1997, it was relocated and rebuilt at its current site due to demolition, and it was renamed Zhengyuan Mosque. According to the Beijing City Gazetteer written in the 1930s, the mosque in Beijing originally called Zhengyuan should be the Jiaochangkou Mosque outside Fuchengmen.

The mosque has just finished renovations. The tiles and dome were removed from the gate, leaving only the plaque inscribed by Hei Boli, the former chairman of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.















After visiting the mosque, I went home, cooked two home-style dishes, and had dinner with Zainab.



Nandouyacai Mosque

After eating, I went to the Nandouyacai Mosque inside Chaoyangmen to attend the Isha prayer.

People say the Nandouyacai Mosque was originally a mosque, which was bought and rebuilt by Muslims with funds raised in 1798 (the third year of the Jiaqing reign). In 2002, due to the demolition of Chaonei Street, the mosque was moved more than 20 meters to the south and rebuilt, changing its entrance to face west toward Douban Hutong.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Firoz Shah Kotla, Jinns and Ashoka Pillar is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Continuing the Seven Cities of Delhi series. The Seven Cities of Delhi refers to the seven historical cities built in Delhi, including Lal Kot, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Purana Qila, and Shahjahanabad. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Firoz Shah Kotla, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Continuing the Seven Cities of Delhi series. The Seven Cities of Delhi refers to the seven historical cities built in Delhi, including Lal Kot, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Purana Qila, and Shahjahanabad.

I have already written about four of them, and this article introduces the fifth city, Ferozabad. The city is named after its builder, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351-1388), who was the successor to Muhammad, the builder of the fourth city, and the nephew of Ghazi Malik, the builder of the third city.

Founding the City

During the late reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq (reigned 1325-1351) of the Tughlaq dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate fell into chaos. Not only Hindu forces but even his own generals broke away from the Sultanate to become independent. In 1351, Muhammad died while on his way to Sindh to resolve tribal wars in Gujarat.

After Muhammad died, no one wanted to take over the mess of the Delhi Sultanate. Eventually, after much persuasion from his ministers, Muhammad's cousin Firuz Shah Tughlaq reluctantly agreed to succeed him as Sultan.

During Firuz's reign, the Sultanate's territory had shrunk significantly, and he had to face numerous rebellions from Gujarat in the west, Bengal in the east, and Warangal in the south. Firuz kept in mind the mistakes his cousin Muhammad made, so he stopped trying to reconquer lost lands and focused on consolidating his current rule.

To do this, Firuz worked on infrastructure, including digging canals, building reservoirs, and constructing nursing homes and hospitals. In 1354, three years after taking the throne, Firuz built a new capital in northern Delhi, which later generations called Ferozabad, the fifth city of Delhi.



The ruins of Ferozabad drawn by William Hodges in 1780.

Feroz Shah Kotla: 1354.

People say before New Delhi was built in the 20th century, many architectural ruins of Ferozabad remained, but today only the core part, Feroz Shah Kotla, is clearly visible.



A map of Feroz Shah Kotla, with a diagram of the site on the left and a view from Google Earth on the right.

Rather than a fortress, this place is more like a palace surrounded by walls. Although the castle has tall walls, there are no platforms for soldiers to fight from, and the arrow slits on the walls look more decorative than functional for battle. Perhaps Firuz never considered using this castle for war, but instead used it as a symbol of power.



The gate of Feroz Shah Kotla drawn by William Orme and Thomas Daniell in 1802.



The gate of Feroz Shah Kotla today.



Arrow slits used only for decoration, with no platform for archers to stand on.

The palace ruins after passing through the gate.









The Jinn in the Castle

Every Thursday afternoon, many people come to Feroz Shah Kotla to light candles and incense by the walls, write their wishes on paper, and pray that the Jinn in the castle will make their wishes come true.



In Islam, Jinn are invisible to the naked eye and, along with angels and devils, are one of the three spiritual entities in the Islamic system. According to the Quran, Jinn were created from fire before Allah created humans; they have a lifestyle similar to humans but have more powerful abilities. There are many descriptions of Jinn in One Thousand and One Nights, the most famous being the genie in Aladdin's lamp.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, Jinn were guardian spirits worshipped by people. But as the early Islamic concept of monotheism solidified, Jinn were placed on an equal footing with humans, subject to judgment and capable of entering heaven or hell.

As Islam spread, the concept of Jinn spread to North Africa, Persia, Central Asia, and India. During the Abbasid era, the concept of Jinn was introduced to India from the Sindh region, gradually becoming part of local folk beliefs and spawning many legends.

The image below shows the Two-Horned One, Zulqarnayn, mentioned in the Quran, who used iron blocks to melt steel and build a barrier with the help of Jinn to protect people from invasion. This story originates from the legend of Alexander the Great and spread to the Arab region through Syria.



An illustration from The Art of Divination, painted by Ja'far al-Sadiq in the 1550s, kept at the Chester Beatty Library.

The image below shows the story of Imam Ali defeating a Jinn.



An illustration from the book Ahsan-ol-Kobar, painted in 1568, kept at the Golestan Palace in Tehran.

Feroz Shah Mosque: 1354.

Legend has it that after Timur the Great occupied Delhi in 1398, he performed namaz in a Jami Masjid. Timur loved this mosque so much that he ordered a mosque of the same design to be built in Samarkand. Many people believe this Jami Mosque is the great mosque inside Feroz Shah Kotla.

In fact, after Emperor Timur returned to Samarkand, he did build a famous Bibi-Khanym Mosque. However, this mosque does not look like the Feroz Shah Mosque; it looks more like the Begampur Mosque in Jahanpanah, the fourth city of Delhi. According to historical records, Emperor Timur mainly lived in Jahanpanah while he was in Delhi. Therefore, the Feroz Shah Mosque may not be the Jami Mosque that legend says Timur loved.

But a major event did happen at the Feroz Shah Mosque. In 1759, the Mughal Empire's vizier Imad-ul-Mulk planned to murder the entire family of the fourteenth Mughal emperor, Alamgir II. On November 29, the vizier told the emperor that a holy man had come to greet him. The emperor was very excited and immediately set off for the Feroz Shah Mosque to meet the holy man, where he was then assassinated. The death of Alamgir II caused great grief among Muslims in the Mughal Empire. Armies from various places soon rose up to attack the vizier Imad-ul-Mulk, and he had to flee Delhi.

The Feroz Shah Mosque has the typical architectural style of the Tughlaq dynasty. The main prayer hall has almost collapsed, but the ground floor is still well-preserved.

Outside the mosque







Mosque gate









People performing namaz







Ashoka Pillar: 1356

Right next to the mosque is the famous Delhi-Topra Ashokan Pillar.

In 1356, while Feroz Shah was passing through a place called Topra in northern India during an expedition, he discovered a famous Ashoka pillar. Feroz Shah transported this pillar back to the capital, Firozabad, and built a pyramid-shaped structure right next to the mosque to house it.

The Ashoka pillar is one of the columns inscribed with edicts that the famous King Ashoka (reigned 273–232 BC) of the ancient Indian Maurya Empire erected across South Asia. There are 20 remaining today, two of which were brought to Delhi by Feroz Shah. Besides the Delhi-Topra pillar, another pillar called the Delhi-Meerut pillar was placed in Feroz Shah's hunting palace.

The original inscriptions on the pillar were in the Prakrit language written in Brahmi script. When Feroz Shah found the pillar, the Brahmi script could no longer be read. It was not until 1837 that the famous Indian antiquities scholar James Princep fully deciphered the Brahmi script and translated its meaning. to the Buddhist teachings similar to other Ashoka pillars, the biggest difference with this pillar is that it mentions tax issues.

around the Brahmi script, there are some Sanskrit records of the victory in war by Visala Deva Vigraharaja IV of the Chauhan dynasty.



The Ashoka pillar drawn by a Delhi artist between 1820 and 1825



The Ashoka pillar photographed by Samuel Bourne in 1860



The Ashoka pillar photographed in 1880 by an unknown photographer

The Ashoka pillar today













Water tank

In the center of the garden on the northwest side of the Ashoka pillar, there is a circular water tank (boli). There is a large underground canal on the east side of the tank, and water flows into the tank through this canal. In the era of Feroz Shah, this was a summer retreat for the Sultan's court, and people used the water in the tank to cool off and bathe.

Today, the water tank is still used to irrigate the garden, but it has been locked and is closed to visitors after a suicide occurred here in early 2014.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Sultanate Palaces and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last post, The Third City of Delhi—Indestructible Beautiful Ruins, we discussed how Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq founded the Tughlaq dynasty, the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1320. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Sultanate History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last post, The Third City of Delhi—Indestructible Beautiful Ruins, we discussed how Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq founded the Tughlaq dynasty, the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1320. In February 1325, Ghiyath al-Din died when a pavilion collapsed on him while he was returning to Delhi from Bengal. His son, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, succeeded him, and he is the main character of this post.

Table of Contents

1. The Founding of Jahanpanah

2. The Mysterious Sultan's Palace

1. Upper Platform: Khalji Dynasty

2. Single-story Hall: Khalji Dynasty

3. Octagonal Tower: Early Tughlaq Dynasty

4. Lower Platform: Late Tughlaq Dynasty

5. Cemetery and Religious Site: Lodi Dynasty

6. Circular Dome: Lodi Dynasty

3. Begampur Mosque

4. Khirki Mosque

5. Kalusarai Mosque

1. The Founding of Jahanpanah

Between 1326 and 1327, to prevent invasion by the Mongol army, Muhammad bin Tughluq connected Delhi's first city, Lal Kot, and its second city, Siri, with walls to create the fourth city of Delhi, Jahanpanah.

For information on Lal Kot and Siri, please see my previous two posts: The First City of Delhi—Minarets Reaching the Clouds and The Second City of Delhi—Turkic Fortress Against the Mongol Army.

The term Jahanpanah consists of two Persian words: Jahan means world, and panah means refuge, shelter, or sanctuary.

Muhammad bin Tughluq did not just expand the capital; he also greatly expanded the territory of the Delhi Sultanate. In the image below, dark green shows the territory in 1320, and light green shows the territory in 1330.



The famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta lived in Delhi between 1333 and 1341. Based on his travelogues, we can infer that at the time, Lal Kot was the city center, Siri was a military camp, and Jahanpanah in the middle was the palace area. Ibn Battuta said the Tughlaq Sultan originally wanted to build a super-city connecting Delhi's existing Lal Kot, Siri, and the third city, Tughlaqabad, but he did not carry it out due to limited funds.

The following is from The Travels of Ibn Battuta (Complete Translation).



The maps and hand-drawn illustrations scanned for this diary are all from the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building, which is an excellent resource on the history of Delhi.



Map of Jahanpanah:



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

Shortly after Jahanpanah was completed, Muhammad bin Tughluq suddenly decided to move the capital to the Deccan Plateau in the south and established a new capital called Daulatabad.

Muhammad bin Tughluq forced the population of Delhi to migrate on a large scale, and those who refused were killed. However, the move failed because Daulatabad lacked enough drinking water due to drought, and Muhammad bin Tughluq eventually moved back to Delhi. Although this relocation failed, it significantly influenced history because many Muslims who moved to the Deccan region did not return to Delhi, leading to a large increase in the Muslim population in central and southern India.

2. The Mysterious Sultan's Palace

Within the ruins of Jahanpanah, there is a huge building site called Bijaya Mandal, which means Victory Platform in Hindi. Bijaya Mandal may be the most puzzling historical building in Delhi. On one hand, we know very little about secular architecture from the Delhi Sultanate period, and on the other, the building changed significantly across different eras.

Much evidence suggests this was likely the palace site of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, but without systematic archaeological excavation, we still cannot be certain about the functions of the existing structures.

Ibn Battuta did not describe the Sultan's palace in much detail. He only mentioned that people had to pass through three gates to reach a palace called bazar suntun, which means thousand pillars. He said these wooden pillars were painted and supported a beautifully carved wooden roof.

It is hard to imagine the appearance of this hall because most buildings preserved from this period are mosques, tombs, and madrasas, with almost no secular buildings remaining. Based on Ibn Battuta's description, this hall likely had long colonnades and a flat roof. One question remains: how did they keep a wooden flat roof waterproof? Regarding the interior of the hall, we only know it had exquisite carvings and the walls were likely decorated with paintings, which were probably removed later during the iconoclastic movement of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388).

Archaeological digs show this building was used for a very long time. Historical records mention that both Sultan Alauddin Khalji (reigned 1296-1316) and Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reigned 1325-1351) had a palace called bazar suntun. Although Ibn Battuta wrote that Alauddin Khalji’s palace was in the city of Siri, these two palaces are likely the same place, and they are probably Bijaya Mandal.

The stone hall at Bijaya Mandal likely dates back to the time of Alauddin Khalji, while the tower next to it was almost certainly built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Archaeological findings show these buildings were still in use after the time of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388). In the early 16th century, during the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526), the site was used by a Sufi sheikh named Sheikh Hasan Tahir.

1. Upper Platform: Khalji Dynasty



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

The oldest part of this complex is likely the upper platform, which may have been built by Alauddin Khalji (reigned 1296-1316). You can see damaged, sloping retaining walls on the west, east, and south sides of the platform. There are two levels of arched basements visible from the east end of the platform, and a similar structure exists on the west end. The main building likely stood in the middle of the slightly raised area of the platform.



A view from the lower platform looking up at the upper platform, the single-story hall, and the octagonal tower.

2. Single-story Hall: Khalji Dynasty

On top of the platform sits a single-story hall, and above that is an octagonal tower. The hall was also likely built during the time of Alauddin Khalji. There are remains of a balcony in front of the hall, and the bases of the pillars are still there. You can walk from the pillars into the main room, where the roof is held up by stone columns. Behind the first row of stone columns are two large pits half a meter deep. In the early 20th century, the Archaeological Survey of India found many items here, including ivory, porcelain, glass necklaces, pearls, red coral, rubies, and coins dating from 1296 to 1390. This place was likely a treasure storage room at the time.

The hall seems to have had entrances on all four sides, but they were likely blocked when Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the heavy platform under the octagonal tower. The first entrance on the north wall next to the platform also seems to have been changed. Different foundation remains show there was once another room on the edge of the platform on the north side of the hall.



Below is the upper platform, and above is the single-story hall.



Looking down at the upper platform from the roof of the single-story hall.

3. Octagonal Tower: Early Tughlaq Dynasty



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

The octagonal tower above the single-story hall was reportedly built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reigned 1325-1351). A slope followed by shallow, wide steps leads to the base of the octagonal tower. There is much evidence that the octagonal tower once extended further to the north. The three doors with quartzite frames and the narrow stairs leading to the roof were added later during the late Tughlaq dynasty.

Inside the octagonal tower is a symmetrical, cross-shaped room with the same openings on each side. In the middle of summer, the inside of the tower stays cooler and catches a breeze.

On the roof of the tower, there are two well-preserved sockets. One still has a groove around the edge, which suggests it likely held something on top. Besides these two sockets, there are actually traces of sockets on every level of the stairs. Based on the depth of these sockets, they likely held heavy, tall pillars. It is thought that there might have once been a pavilion (baradari) on top of the tower. There is also a row of small sockets along the edge of the roof, which may have held smaller upright posts.

We can guess that this tower was likely a viewing platform for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, but the biggest question is how the Sultan got up there, as his fancy clothes would have been hard to wear through the narrow stairs that exist today. It is very likely there was another staircase at the time, although Indian palaces usually did not have fancy stairs and kept them inside thick walls.







The narrow stairs leading to the octagonal tower.





The octagonal tower.



Inside the octagonal tower.

4. Lower Platform: Late Tughlaq Dynasty



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

You can go down from the upper platform to a larger lower platform. There are retaining walls on the east and west sides of the lower platform. The buildings on the lower platform date to two periods: the wall foundations are made of large quartzite, while the upper parts feature masonry typical of the Tughlaq dynasty. Archaeological excavations in the 1920s uncovered stone pillar bases on the lower platform, some of which are still visible in the southwest corner today. On the other side of the platform, near the crumbling east retaining wall, you can still see delicate plaster flooring. These ruins may all be part of the palace Ibn Battuta called the bazar sutun.

There is a tall retaining wall between the two platforms, featuring a series of vertical slots that were likely used to hold wooden pillars or decorations. Except for the ramp on the east side of the upper platform, there is no other way to connect the two platforms. The wooden pillars in the lower vertical slots may have supported a higher floor, forming the Sultan's palace along with the stone hall on the south side. Another theory is that the lower platform was the Sultan's palace and the upper platform was his sleeping quarters, which is why the two levels are separate.



Wall foundations of the lower platform.



Wall foundations of the lower platform.

5. Cemetery and Religious Site: Lodi Dynasty



About halfway across the platform, the ground level rises significantly, which likely marks the general area of the palace. Far from the palace is a small cemetery where Sheikh Hasan Tahir and his descendants are buried. This sheikh lived during the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526) and died in 1503. It is said he lived in Bijay Mandal for a long time.

There is an arcade-style building at the very edge of the outer platform of the cemetery. On the north side of the building, there are remains of a long arcade wall, with pillars and arches in the Lodi dynasty style. There are also two sturdy towers, with black plaster coatings on top that reflect the Tughlaq dynasty style. It is believed that this may have been a khanqah (a place for Sufi gatherings) built by Sheikh Hasan Tahir.



Looking out at the lower platform and the sheikh's tomb from the single-story hall.



6. Circular Dome: Lodi Dynasty

Next to Bijaya Mandal is a building with a circular dome, thought to have been built in the 15th century. The purpose of this building remains unknown, and its structure is quite unique: it has two openings on each of the north, south, and west sides, while the east side is sealed. Foundation evidence shows there was once another building on the west side of this structure.













3. Begampur Mosque

Begampur Mosque is the most important mosque in the city of Jahanpanah and the most representative mosque of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate still standing today; it is said to have been designed by the Iranian architect Zahir al-Din al-Jayush.

There are two theories about when the mosque was built: one suggests it is one of the seven mosques built by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, the wazir (prime minister) of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388), while the other suggests it was built when Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351.

In 1921, the Archaeological Survey of India cleared out the residents living inside the mosque, giving it the appearance it has today.



Begampur Mosque is magnificent, with a spacious courtyard surrounded by arcades. There is a circular domed building in the center of each of the four sides; the east, north, and west ones are gates, and the largest one on the west side is the main prayer hall.

The mosque is very simple, with only a few carvings inside the main prayer hall. These stone carvings and the dome were once covered in shimmering white plaster, but most of it has fallen off and turned black.

The gate.





Looking inside from the gate.



Inside the gate.



The corridor on the northeast side.



Southwest corridor



Courtyard



Overlook





North gate



South gate



The corridor on the north side of the main prayer hall has collapsed.











Main prayer hall





Mihrab





Main prayer hall dome



Minimal decoration





4. Khirki Mosque

Khirki Mosque is another important mosque from the Tughlaq dynasty besides Begumpur Mosque, but its design is very different from Begumpur Mosque. This mosque is undoubtedly one of the seven mosques built by the prime minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, and it was likely built in the 1370s.

Khirki Mosque sits much higher than the ground, and a trench has now formed around it. The mosque has a large gate on the north, east, and south sides, each with small minarets on top, and there is a large minaret at each of the four corners of the mosque.





From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

Mosque facade



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building





The gate.



The biggest feature of Khirki Mosque is that its roof is almost completely covered, with only four small square courtyards, which is very rare in the Delhi Sultanate. Because there are only four small open-air courtyards, the mosque cannot be fully lit even during the day, and it is darkest in front of the mihrab in the prayer hall.

The structure made of square pillars and circular domes gives this mosque a strong sense of geometric beauty. I arrived at dusk, and even though it was very dark, I was still stunned.







Courtyard





Mihrab



Collapsed dome in the northeast corner





Corner tower



5. Kalusarai Mosque

Kalusarai Mosque is one of the seven mosques built by the aforementioned prime minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul. It is currently badly damaged and several families live inside, so the door was locked when I went and I could not enter. This mosque has a more complex structure than the other six mosques built by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, but it is still in the typical Tughlaq dynasty style.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Tughlaqabad Fort, Ruins and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In my first article, The First City of Delhi: The Tower Reaching the Clouds, I wrote about the Delhi Sultanate's Mamluk dynasty building the Qutub Minar. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Tughlaqabad Fort, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In my first article, The First City of Delhi: The Tower Reaching the Clouds, I wrote about the Delhi Sultanate's Mamluk dynasty building the Qutub Minar. In the second article, The Second City of Delhi: The Turkic Fortress Defending Against the Mongol Army, I covered how the Khalji dynasty built a fortress to stop the Mongols. In this article, the Delhi Sultanate enters its third era: the Tughlaq dynasty.

Table of Contents

1. The Nemesis of the Afghan Mongols

1. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

2. Defeating the Mongols Twice

3. Taking the Fight to the Mongols

2. The Rise of the Tughlaq Dynasty

1. The Death of Alauddin Khalji

2. The Fall of the Khalji Dynasty

3. The Founding of the Tughlaq Dynasty

3. Building the City of Tughlaqabad

1. Legends of the Fortress Construction

2. The Curse of the Sufi Saint

4. Tughlaqabad Fortress

1. City Layout

2. The City Walls

3. The Palace District

4. The Citadel Area

5. The Tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

6. Adilabad Fort

1. The Nemesis of the Afghan Mongols

1. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq or Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) was originally named Ghazi Malik. The title Ghazi refers to a warrior for Islam.

Ghazi came from a humble background. His father was a slave from the Qaraunah Turkic tribe, and his mother was a Hindu. The Qaraunah were a Turkic tribe living in Afghanistan under the Mongol Empire. In 1238, the Mongols moved them to the northwest border of India to defend against the Delhi Sultanate. This tribe took part in almost every Mongol invasion of India after 1241. Many were captured by the Delhi Sultanate and became slaves, which is how Ghazi's father arrived in the Delhi Sultanate.

Ghazi was a talented military leader. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji of the Khalji dynasty, he became the military governor of Dipalpur on the northwest border of the Delhi Sultanate and began fighting the Mongols.



The location of Dipalpur

2. Defeating the Mongols Twice

In my previous article, The Second City of Delhi: The Turkic Fortress Defending Against the Mongol Army, I mentioned that Ghazi served as a general during the two attacks on the Delhi Sultanate by the Chagatai Khanate Mongol army in 1305 and 1306.

During the 1305 Mongol invasion, the 14th-century Delhi chronicler Amir Khusrau wrote that the Mongol army was defeated as miserably as a swarm of mosquitoes trying to resist a strong wind. However, historical records do not provide many details about Ghazi's specific role in that battle.

When the Mongols invaded in 1306, the commander of the Delhi Sultanate was Malik Kafur, and Ghazi served as deputy commander, leading the vanguard. After the Sultanate's main army set out, Ghazi's vanguard quickly reached the northwest border and spotted the Mongol scouts. He reported the Mongol army's position to Kafur. The Delhi Sultanate's army moved at full speed and completely crushed the Chagatai Mongol army on the banks of the Ravi River, a tributary of the Indus River. A large number of Mongols were killed or captured.



The Chor Minar, a tower of heads built during the Delhi Khalji dynasty. The 225 holes on it are said to have once held the heads of killed Mongol captives.

3. Taking the Fight to the Mongols

According to the chronicler Amir Khusrau, the crushing defeat of the Mongols in 1306 caused the Mongols in Afghanistan to fear the Delhi Sultanate. They retreated to the mountains near the famous ancient city of Ghazni in southeastern Afghanistan. In 1307, Duwa, the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate, died, and Central Asia fell into chaos. His successors were unable to organize any more large-scale invasions.

On the other hand, defeating the Mongols repeatedly gave Ghazi a huge boost in confidence. He changed the Khalji dynasty's defensive policy against the Mongols and began to actively invade the Chagatai Khanate's territory in Afghanistan. Every year, Ghazi raided important Mongol cities in Afghanistan such as Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, and Garmsir, and even briefly recaptured Lahore, the early capital of the Delhi Sultanate.

The chronicler Amir Khusrau wrote in his book Tughluq-Nama that Ghazi won 20 battles, mostly against the Mongols. The famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta passed by a mosque in Multan in the 14th century, where a stone tablet was inscribed with the claim that Ghazi had defeated the Mongols 29 times.

In this way, Ghazi became the military commander of the Punjab region on the northwestern frontier of the Delhi Sultanate.



Afghan cities under Mongol rule that were attacked by Ghazi.

2. The Rise of the Tughlaq Dynasty

1. The Death of Alauddin Khalji

In his final years, Sultan Alauddin Khalji grew to distrust his officers and favored only the eunuch slave general Malik Kafur.

In 1315, Alauddin fell seriously ill and appointed Kafur as regent (Na'ib), giving him real power.

Alauddin died on the night of January 4, 1316. The next day, Kafur gathered all the important officials and nobles to read the will, which named Alauddin's 6-year-old son Shihabuddin as the new Sultan, with Kafur as regent.

2. The Fall of the Khalji Dynasty

Kafur was regent for only about a month, during which he constantly persecuted Alauddin's family, upsetting some of Alauddin's former armed guards (paiks). Led by Mubashshir, the guards beheaded Kafur. They released Alauddin's older son Mubarak Shah, who had been imprisoned by Kafur, and named him the new regent.

On April 14, 1316, Mubarak Shah deposed his younger brother to become the new Sultan, taking the title Qutubuddin.

Mubarak Shah was bisexual and had same-sex relationships with the brothers Hasan and Husamuddin. Hasan and Husamuddin were brought to the Delhi Sultanate court as Hindu slaves in 1305. To survive, the brothers converted to Islam and served Mubarak Shah.

The relationship between Mubarak Shah and Hasan was no secret. They hugged and kissed in public, and Mubarak Shah gave Hasan the title Khusrau Khan.

In 1320, Mubarak Shah was killed by Khusrau Khan, ending the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.



Siri, the capital of the Delhi Sultanate's Khalji dynasty.

3. The Founding of the Tughlaq Dynasty

After Mubarak Shah was killed by Khusrau Khan, Khusrau Khan returned to his Hindu identity, which caused great dissatisfaction among Muslim officers and nobles. These officers and nobles supported Ghazi, the Punjab military commander who held a large army, to attack Khusrau Khan.

After Alauddin died, Ghazi gained military control over the Multan and Sindh regions. After receiving invitations from the Muslim officers and nobles, he and his son Fakhr Malik gathered a large army in Multan and Sindh and marched toward Delhi.

In September 1320, Ghazi defeated Khusrau Khan west of Siri in Delhi and established the Tughlaq dynasty, the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Ghazi received the title Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, and his son received the title Muhammad Shah Tughluq.

3. Building the City of Tughlaqabad

After establishing the Tughlaq dynasty, Ghazi began building Tughlaqabad Fort in 1321. The massive 6.5-kilometer-long city was completed in just two years.

1. Legends of the Fortress Construction

There is a famous legend about the construction of Tughlaqabad Fort. Once, while walking with the last Sultan of the Khalji dynasty, Mubarak Shah, Ghazi suggested that the Sultan build a stronger fortress in Delhi. The Sultan joked that if you ever become Sultan, you can build the fortress yourself. As it turned out, his words came true.

2. The Curse of the Sufi Saint

Ghazi dreamed of building a fortress so strong that it could withstand the fiercest attacks from the Mongol army. However, fate did not go as he wished.

Ghazi was passionate about his fortress and ordered all laborers in Delhi to help build it. At the time, the famous Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya was building a water tank (baoli), and his laborers were forced to go build the fortress instead. But these people preferred to work for the saint, so they built the fortress for Ghazi during the day and the water tank for Nizamuddin at night. When Ghazi found out, he was very angry and forbade the laborers from working for Nizamuddin. Nizamuddin issued a curse: 'Ya rahey ujjar, ya basey gujjar'. It roughly means 'Either it will remain desolate, or it will be inhabited by the Gujjar people.' "

After the sultanate fell, the nomadic Gujjar people (gujjar) took over the castle, and it turned into a wilderness.



Nizamuddin Dargah in Delhi

4. Tughlaqabad Fortress

1. City Layout

The entire city is divided into three parts:

The largest part is the residential area in the north. Old photos from the 1940s show streets and the ruins of the Friday mosque (Juma Masjid), but they are hard to recognize now.

The southwest side is the palace area, where the buildings have collapsed significantly, though there is one well-preserved water well.

The southeast side is the smallest but most interesting part, the fortress area, which has many architectural ruins like houses, storage rooms, and a mosque.



The blue line shows the existing city walls.



2. The City Walls

Tughlaqabad City features the sloped rubble walls typical of the Tughlaq dynasty. The walls are 10 to 15 meters high and reinforced by two-story circular bastions. The city is said to have had as many as 52 gates, but only 13 remain today.

The southeast corner tower of the fortress area wall



The south city wall



The inside of the south city wall







The picture below shows the view from the northwest corner tower of the fortress area looking toward the east wall of the palace area.



In the picture below, the lower wall is the east wall of the palace area, and the higher one is the west wall of the fortress area.



Standing on the fortress area wall looking west toward the palace area wall.



The east wall of the palace area



The west wall of the fortress area



The collapsed west gate of the fortress area



The interior of the high platform on the west wall of the fortress area



3. The Palace District

The palace ruins of Tughlaqabad City have collapsed badly, so you can only imagine their former glory.













West of the palace is a water tank (baoli) that provided water for the castle.





4. The Citadel Area

The fortress area is the part of the city with the richest ruins.



Looking down at the entire fortress area:







A small mosque in the fortress area







The mihrab that indicates the direction of Mecca



The fortress area has a classic underground storage room:

The north entrance of the storage room



The south entrance of the storage room



The passage of the storage room, with individual warehouses on both sides.



There are also some residential ruins inside the fortress area.





5. The Tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

I mentioned earlier the curse that the Sufi saint Nizamuddin placed on Ghiyas-ud-din. Another famous curse is "Hunuz Dilli dur ast". It means "Delhi is still far away." "

In 1324, Ghazi led an expedition to Bengal and succeeded. On the way back in February 1325, a wooden pavilion collapsed, crushing Ghazi and his second son, Mahmud Khan, to death. The famous 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta believed that his eldest son, Muhammad bin Tughluq, killed his father.

After Ghazi died, his eldest son Muhammad succeeded him as Sultan and buried Ghazi in a tomb south of the city of Tughlaqabad.



The Mausoleum of Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq connects to the city of Tughlaqabad to the north via a causeway. This 182-meter causeway has 27 arches, and there used to be an artificial lake underneath. The lake has now been filled in to become flat land, and the middle of the causeway is split in two by a road.





Ghazi's tomb sits atop a granite fortress. The tomb has a square dome and is built of red sandstone, inlaid with white marble slabs.









Inside the tomb are three grave markers; the middle one belongs to Ghazi himself, and the other two belong to his wife and his son Muhammad.





Dome





Fortress corridors and architectural pieces on the ground





In the northwest corner of the fortress, there is another tomb containing an octagonal burial chamber. According to the stone inscription on the south gate, this tomb belongs to Zafar Khan.

Zafar Khan was a general of the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, and he died in 1299 during a decisive battle between the Mongol army of the Chagatai Khanate and the Delhi Sultanate on the outskirts of Delhi.

One theory is that Zafar Khan's tomb was already built on the current site before this, and Ghazi incorporated it into the fortress when building his own tomb. Another theory is that Zafar Khan's tomb was intentionally built by Ghazi next to his own.













6. Adilabad Fort

After Muhammad took the throne in 1325, he built a medium-sized castle called Adilabad fort to the southeast of Tughlaqabad.

People say Adilabad fort was connected to Tughlaqabad by a 1-kilometer-long causeway, but the causeway has now disappeared.

Compared to the majestic Tughlaqabad, Adilabad fort is much smaller in scale and is divided into inner and outer walls.









West gate









East gate, which takes a bit of effort to climb up to



Looking down inside the city



The core area is the palace district



City wall









Besides the inner wall, there is also an outer wall

Reposted from the web

Summary: Konya — Seljuk History and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: The Seljuqs were a Sunni Muslim group from the Oghuz Turkic tribal confederation in the Central Asian steppes. The account keeps its focus on Konya Travel, Seljuk History, Turkey Travel while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

The Seljuqs were a Sunni Muslim group from the Oghuz Turkic tribal confederation in the Central Asian steppes. They were deeply influenced by Persian culture. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, they built a vast Seljuq Empire that stretched across West and Central Asia. The Sultanate of Rum was a state founded by the Seljuqs in Asia Minor. After the Seljuq Empire collapsed, it continued to exist for over a hundred years with Konya as its capital. After the Mongol invasion, the Sultanate of Rum broke into many smaller states called beyliks. One of these beyliks eventually grew into the Ottoman Empire.

Between the 9th and 10th centuries, a unique "Turco-Persian" culture emerged in the Khorasan and Transoxiana regions. This culture formed when Turkic peoples, living in Central Asia and Iran, blended Turkic and Persian cultures. These Turkic peoples were deeply influenced by Persian culture. From the 11th to the 13th centuries, "Turco-Persian" culture spread quickly. As the Seljuq Dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate expanded, this culture reached from the Mediterranean Sea all the way to the mouth of the Ganges River. Later, "Turco-Persian" culture gradually took root in West and South Asia with the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Dynasty. For several centuries, it became the main culture for the ruling and elite classes.

Konya, as the capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum, was the last Seljuq "Turco-Persian" cultural center after the Seljuq Empire fell. Seljuq culture is a very unique part of "Turco-Persian" culture. It is most famous for its tiles and stone carvings. On this trip to Konya, I visited all the Seljuq-era historical sites in the city. Sadly, some were under repair and I couldn't go inside. I will share the Seljuq sites I saw on this trip.

Contents

1. Historical Introduction

1. The Founding of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum

2. Making Konya the Capital

2. Rumi's Tomb: 1274

1. Rumi in Konya

2. Rumi's Tomb

3. Iplikci Mosque: 1201

4. Karatay Madrasa: 1251

5. Tiles of Kubadabad Palace: 1236

6. Slender Minaret Madrasa (Ince Minareli Medrese): 1268

7. Konya City Walls: 12th-13th Centuries

8. Alaeddin Kiosk: Late 12th Century

9. Alaeddin Mosque: 12th Century - 1235

Ten. Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese): 1242.

Eleven. Sahib Ata Mosque: 1258.

Twelve. Sahib Ata Madrasa: 1258.

Thirteen. Artifacts in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.

1. Historical Introduction

1. The Founding of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum

The Seljuqs were a branch of the Oghuz Turkic tribe. They originally lived as nomads on the Kazakh steppes, north of the Syr Darya River in Central Asia. Their leader, Seljuk Beig, converted to Islam around 985. He then separated from the Oghuz tribal confederation and moved to the Transoxiana region, south of the Syr Darya River.

In 1035, their relationship with the Karakhanid Dynasty got worse. The Seljuqs were forced to move south into the Khorasan region of Persia. They then unexpectedly defeated the large army of the Ghaznavid Dynasty. Soon after, they fully controlled all of Khorasan.

In 1037, Tughril (who ruled from 1037-1063) officially founded the Seljuq Dynasty in Khorasan. They then kept expanding. In 1051, they moved their capital to Isfahan, which was then the most important city in Persia.

Starting in 1040, the Seljuq Dynasty repeatedly attacked Asia Minor, which was under Byzantine rule. They finally defeated the Byzantines completely in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. After the war, Seljuq Sultan Alp Arslan (who ruled from 1063-1072) sent his distant cousin, Suleiman ibn Qutulmish (who ruled from 1077-1086), to go deeper into Asia Minor. Suleiman moved west all the way, reaching the city of Nicaea on the Sea of Marmara.

In 1077, Suleiman officially founded the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum, with Nicaea as its capital. "Rum" meant "Rome" at that time, and people used it to refer to Asia Minor under Eastern Roman (Byzantine) rule.



The Seljuq Dynasty in 1092, from Wikipedia

2. Making Konya the Capital

The rapid expansion of the Seljuq Dynasty caused panic among Christian states. This directly led to the First Crusade. In 1097, Nicaea, the capital of the Sultanate of Rum, finally fell after a long siege by the Crusaders, forcing the Sultanate to move its capital east to Konya.

Konya was very wealthy in the second half of the 12th century. At that time, the Sultanate of Rum controlled almost all of eastern Anatolia, several port towns on the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and even held a foothold in Crimea for a time, bringing vast trade wealth into Konya.

After the Mongols invaded Central Asia and Persia in the early 13th century, many Turkic and Persian people came to Konya for refuge. In the 1220s, Konya was full of refugees from the Khwarezmid Empire. Many were educated intellectuals or skilled craftsmen, the most famous being the Sufi scholar and great Persian poet Rumi.

In 1243, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was defeated by the Mongol Empire and became a vassal state, but Konya remained the capital. People lived in stability, and many existing Seljuk buildings date from this period.

In the late 13th century, the Seljuks split into many small principalities, including the early Ottoman Empire. These small states nominally recognized the status of the Sultanate of Rum, but the Sultanate could only actually control the limited territory around Konya. At this time, the Karamanids dynasty began continuous attacks on the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, but they eventually failed due to the intervention of the Ilkhanate.

At the end of the 13th century, the Sultanate of Rum fell into a series of internal struggles, and the last Sultan, Mesud II, was killed in 1308. In 1328, Konya was occupied by the Karamanids dynasty, and Seljuk culture finally exited the historical stage. After this, the Ottomans rose on the legacy of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, and Konya would eventually enter its next era.



The Sultanate of Rum in the 12th and 13th centuries, by author DragonTiger23.

2. Rumi's Tomb: 1274

Rumi (1207-1273) was a famous 13th-century Sufi scholar and Persian poet, honored in Turkey as Mevlâna. Rumi died in Konya in 1273 and was buried next to his father's tomb. His successor, Hüsamettin Çelebi, decided to build a mausoleum for Rumi, and the tomb, led by architect Badr al-Din Tabrizi, was officially completed in 1274.

The entire complex includes the tombs of Rumi and his followers, a mosque, a Sufi practice space, and living areas for the practitioners. During the Ottoman era, this place was always the center of activity for the Mevlevi Sufi order.

In 1925, the Republic of Turkey announced the closure of all Sufi practice spaces and the dissolution of Sufi orders. In 1927, the Rumi mausoleum was converted into the Konya History Museum and opened to the public, and it was renamed the Mevlâna Museum in 1954. Today, it is a famous Sufi holy site in Turkey, and people from all over the world come here to visit and make pilgrimages every day.





1. Rumi in Konya

Rumi was born in 1207 into a Persian-speaking family in the Balkh region on the border of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. His father, Baha'ud-Din, was an Islamic scholar and a Sufi mentor.

Between 1215 and 1220, the Mongols invaded Central Asia, and Rumi moved west with his family, eventually arriving in Anatolia after much traveling. In 1228, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I (reigned 1220-1237), invited Baha'ud-Din to the capital, Konya, so Rumi's family finally settled there.

In Konya, Baha'ud-Din served as the head of a religious school and taught Rumi various Islamic knowledge and Sufi practices. After Baha'ud-Din died in 1232, Rumi continued his training under one of his father's students, Burhan ud-Din. In 1240 (or 1241), Burhan ud-Din died, and Rumi officially became an Islamic legal scholar and teacher, beginning to preach and teach students at the mosque.

In 1244, Rumi met the Sufi master Shams Tabrizi, which completely changed his life. He honored Shams as his spiritual mentor, transforming from an Islamic scholar into a Sufi practitioner.

In 1248, Shams suddenly left. Rumi was deeply saddened and went to Damascus himself to look for him, but he found nothing. To express his longing for Shams, Rumi wrote a large number of lyrical poems. At this time, he met a goldsmith named Salaḥud-Din-e Zarkub, who understood Rumi's heart very well, and the two became close friends. Zarkub helped Rumi organize 2,500 lyrical poems into the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi.

After Zarkub died in 1259, Rumi's scribe and favorite student, Hussam-e Chalabi, became Rumi's confidant. One day, Rumi showed Hussam a short piece of narrative poetry he had written, the Masnavi, and Hussam was pleasantly surprised and begged Rumi to continue writing it. So, starting in 1260, Rumi began writing his masterpiece, the Masnavi. During the writing process, Rumi would recite, Hussam would record, and then Rumi would confirm it. This work continued until the very last moments of Rumi's life.

2. Rumi's Tomb

The site of Rumi's tomb was originally a rose garden gifted by the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I, to Rumi's father, Bahauddin. After Bahauddin passed away in 1232, he was buried here, and the site officially became Rumi's tomb in 1274. Later, Rumi's descendants and disciples founded the Mevlevi Order, and this place became the headquarters for the Mevlevi Order.

The main gate of Rumi's tomb (Devisan Kapısı) is located in the northwest corner and currently serves as the museum exit. After entering the main gate, you find a marble-paved courtyard, where the most important buildings are the tomb of Rumi and the mosque on the east side.

The tomb gate (Türbe Kapisi) dates back to 1492.





Inside the tomb gate is a room called 'Tilavet,' which in Arabic means 'reading the Quran with a beautiful voice and correct rhythm.' Before it became a museum, this room was used for the continuous chanting of the Quran, and today it houses various precious calligraphic works.

Walking further inside, you will find the sarcophagi of Rumi, his family, and the leaders of the Mevlevi Order. Rumi's sarcophagus sits under a green spire, covered in brocade embroidered with Quranic verses in gold thread. The sarcophagi of Rumi and his father, along with the surrounding wood carvings, date back to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, while the outer silver lattice was built in 1579. Unfortunately, this section is currently under renovation and cannot be seen.











Moving forward is the ceremonial hall (Semahane), built during the era of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I (reigned 1520-1566). Before 1926, this was where the Mevlevi Order performed the Sama ceremony, commonly known as the whirling dance.







Today, the ceremonial hall displays many precious artifacts. These include Rumi's own shoulder strap, cloak, and felt hat.







The Masnavi, written in 1278 by the calligrapher Mehmed bin Abdullah Konevi.



The 1366 collection of Rumi's poetry.



A 13th-century bookshelf featuring Seljuk lion patterns.





A 9th-century Quran written in Kufic script.



A Quran written in 1296 by the calligrapher Yakutu'l-Mustasimi.



A Quran from 1314.



Next to the ceremonial hall is a mosque also built during the era of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I (reigned 1520-1566).











In the center of the courtyard is a fountain for wudu (ṣadirvan), built in 1512 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I (reigned 1512-1520).



On the west side of the courtyard is a row of 17 small rooms with domes and chimneys, built in 1584 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (reigned 1574-1595), which served as living quarters for Sufi practitioners.







Inside, there are many introductions to the Mevlevi Order and some precious artifacts, such as this 13th-century Seljuk-style incense burner with lion patterns.



There is also this copy of the Masnavi, written in 1372 by the calligrapher Hasan bin Osman el-Mevlevi for the Seljuk minister (vazir) Şherefüddin Emir Satı.



On the south side of the courtyard is the kitchen (Matbah), built in 1548 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I (reigned 1520-1566), which provided food for Sufi practitioners until 1926. This was also a place where Sufi masters taught knowledge and the Sama ceremony.









The courtyard also contains the tombs of several Sufi masters of the Mevlevi Order.

The earliest of these is the site of the tomb of Ahmed Eflâkî Dede. Ahmed Eflâkî Dede wrote the important work on Rumi titled 'Menâkibü'l-Ârifîn' and traveled with Rumi's grandson, Ulu Ârif Çelebi, working to expand the influence of the Mevlevi Order throughout Anatolia.

Today, only two curtain walls remain of the tomb's above-ground structure. Research suggests the west wall is likely connected to early 13th-century Mevlevi architecture, while the date on the tombstone is 1360. Additionally, archaeological excavations at the museum have uncovered basements on both sides of the south facade.







3. Iplikci Mosque: 1201

The Iplikci Mosque was built in 1201 by order of the Seljuk minister (vizier) Shams al-Din Altun Aba, with the architect Abu al-Fazi Abd al-Jabbar from Tabriz, Iran; this is important evidence of Persian craftsmen directly influencing Seljuk architecture. This building underwent a series of renovations during the Karaman dynasty, the Ottoman Empire, and modern times. Today, the original mosaic tiles on the mihrab inside the hall have been replaced by marble, but the parts at the bottom covered by carpets are still the original Seljuk-era pieces.













4. Karatay Madrasa: 1251

The Karatay Madrasa was built in 1251 under the direction of Emir Celaleddin Karatay of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum; the madrasa is named after him, and teaching activities continued there until the end of the 19th century.

This building holds a very important place among surviving Seljuk structures featuring mosaic tiles, so it opened to the public as the Tile Museum in 1955. Archaeological excavations and restoration work took place here between 2006 and 2008.







The main gate of the madrasa (religious school) is on the east side. Made of sky-blue and white marble, it is a masterpiece of Seljuk craftsmanship, carved with excerpts from the Quran and information about the school's construction.



The main hall is covered in turquoise, indigo, and black tiles, along with calligraphy of verses, the names of prophets, and the four Rashidun Caliphs.













Inside the domed building to the left of the main hall is the tomb of Celaleddin Karatay, who passed away in 1254. Celaleddin Karatay began serving in the court of the Sultanate of Rum in 1212. He was promoted to Minister of Finance in 1243 and received the noble title of Atabeg in 1249, remaining a key official of the Sultanate until his death in 1254. Celaleddin Karatay served four sultans during his life. He was known for his humility, piety, and simple lifestyle, and he was dedicated to developing science and art. He oversaw many projects, including the Kayseri-Elbistan road, with the Karatay Madrasa being his most famous.





5. Tiles of Kubadabad Palace: 1236

Kubadabad Palace was the summer palace of the Sultanate of Rum. It is located on the shore of Lake Beyşehir, 100 kilometers west of Konya, and was built in 1236 by the Seljuk Sultan Kayqubad I (reigned 1220-1237).

In 1949, Zeki Oral, the director of the Konya Museum, first discovered the ruins of Kubadabad Palace and conducted archaeological excavations in 1952. German archaeologist Katharina Ottodorn conducted further excavations in 1965, followed by Turkish archaeologist Mehmet Önder in 1967. In 1980, Professor Rüçhan Arık led a team from Ankara University to conduct a systematic survey and excavation of the site.



Kubadabad Palace is very different from the Seljuk palaces in Konya and Kayseri. It is far from towns and lacks high city walls; protection for the palace seems to have been provided by a fortress complex on a nearby island.

Sixteen buildings have been excavated at Kubadabad Palace. The main structure is a large 50x35 meter palace where many ornate underglaze tiles were found. Some of these tiles are now on display at the Karatay Tile Museum.





































Additionally, the Tiled Kiosk at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums also houses tiles from Kubadabad Palace.



6. Slender Minaret Madrasa (Ince Minareli Medrese): 1268

The Ince Minaret Medrese (Slender Minaret Madrasa) was built by Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali between 1263 and 1268. Sahib Ata was an important official in the Seljuk Rum Sultanate court from the 1250s until his death in 1288. After 1277, he even held great power in the Sultanate. This madrasa remained active until the end of the 19th century. After restoration in 1956, it opened to the public as the Museum of Stone and Wood Carvings.







The madrasa once had a slender, towering minaret, which is where the school gets its name. Unfortunately, lightning destroyed the minaret in 1901. Today, only the bottom section remains, where you can see typical Seljuk sky-blue tiles.







The gate of the madrasa is considered one of the best examples of a Seljuk architectural entrance.







The interior of the main hall also features Seljuk sky-blue tiles.







Seljuk stone carvings collected in the museum.









From Alaaddin Hill.







7. Konya City Walls: 12th-13th Centuries

Research shows that the earliest Konya city walls (Konya Kalesi) were located on Alaaddin Hill and were built by the descendants of Alexander the Great during the Hellenistic period. The Konya city walls were rebuilt four times in history. In 1221, the Seljuk Sultan Kayqubad I (reigned 1220-1237) built new outer walls beyond the inner walls on Alaaddin Hill. At that time, the Konya city walls were 30 meters high and had 12 gates.



An illustration of the Konya city walls, address https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/konya

According to the 17th-century Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi, the Konya city walls were still intact in the 17th century. However, as time passed, the walls began to gradually deteriorate during the late Ottoman period. The inner walls on Alaaddin Hill were the first to be demolished, and the outer walls were also dismantled in the late 19th century. The government buildings of that time were built using stones from the walls.

Today, most of the ruins of the Konya city walls have not been preserved. Fortunately, some stone carvings are currently kept in the Konya Museum of Stone and Wood Carvings, including winged angels and double-headed eagles, which are fine examples of Seljuk stone carving.















8. Alaeddin Kiosk: Late 12th Century

The Alaaddin Pavilion (Alâeddin Köşkü) is the only remaining tower ruin of the Konya city walls. Located on the north side of Alaaddin Hill, it was originally a brick tower of the inner city wall. The Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II (reigned 1156-1192) built his estate right next to the wall and turned this tower into part of the estate, which is why it has been preserved to this day.

When I visited, the Alaaddin Pavilion and the ruins of the Kilij Arslan II estate were under renovation and could not be entered.



The Alaaddin Pavilion in an old photograph, from https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/konya







Manor ruins.

The original stone lions from the Alaeddin Pavilion are now kept at the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul.







9. Alaeddin Mosque: 12th Century - 1235

Alaeddin Mosque is located on the east side of Alaeddin Hill in the center of Konya. It was once the royal mosque for the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and houses the tombs of past sultans.

Records show the first Alaeddin Mosque was rebuilt on top of a Christian church shortly after the Seljuks captured Konya in the late 11th century. Many parts of the building were taken directly from nearby Byzantine structures.

The oldest existing inscription in the mosque dates back to the reign of the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Mesud I (reigned 1116–1156). The mosque's ebony pulpit (minbar) features an inscription from 1155, and the prayer niche (mihrab) and the tiles on the vaulted ceiling were likely built during the same period.

In 1219, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kaykaus I (reigned 1211–1220), began rebuilding the Alaeddin Mosque. He moved the main entrance from the west side to the north and added a massive structure on the north side overlooking the city and facing the sultan's palace. The final building plans were never finished because the sultan died the following year.

In 1235, Sultan Kayqubad I (reigned 1220–1237) added a large hall made of forty-two stone columns to the east of the prayer niche (mihrab). The mosque's current east gate and minaret were built during the Ottoman period.

Unfortunately, the Alaeddin Mosque was under renovation when I visited. Only the east hall built in 1235 was open, so I could not see the west hall or the tomb section.



Alaeddin Mosque, address https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/konya

Reposted from the web

Summary: Konya — Seljuk History and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Ten. Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese): 1242. The account keeps its focus on Konya Travel, Seljuk History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.











The Seljuk Rum Sultan's Tomb is under renovation and not open.

Ten. Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese): 1242.

The Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese) was commissioned in 1242 by Emir Bedrettin Muslih. Its architect was Muhammed bin Osman el Tusi. This building is known for its colorful mosaic tiles.

During the reign of Seljuk Rum Sultan Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246), Bedrettin Muslih served as the Islamic law tutor for the next sultan, Kayqubad II (1249–1257). His and his family's tombs are inside the madrasa.

After the 17th century, the madrasa slowly fell into disrepair. Many mosaic tiles fell off. In the 19th century, some classrooms inside were torn down and rebuilt as brick houses.

After 1964, this building opened to the public as a tomb museum. But I went on both Saturday and Sunday, and it was closed both days. So I only saw the main gate with its geometric reliefs.













Eleven. Sahib Ata Mosque: 1258.

The Sahib Ata Mosque, like the Thin Minaret Madrasa (İnce Minareli Medrese), was built by Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali. The architect was Keluk bin Abdullah. Sahib Ata was an important official in the Seljuk Rum Sultanate court from the 1250s until his death in 1288. After 1277, he even held great power in the Sultanate.

The mosque is most famous for its main gate and minaret. It was restored between 2006 and 2007.

















The main prayer hall of the mosque was destroyed by fire in 1871. Only the beautiful Seljuk tiled mihrab survived. Sadly, I forgot to go inside and photograph the mihrab, which left me with regret. However, some of the mihrab's tiles are on display in the Tile Kiosk of the Istanbul Archaeology Museums.







Twelve. Sahib Ata Madrasa: 1258.

Besides the mosque, Sahib Ata also built an entire complex here. It includes a madrasa, a Sufi lodge, a bathhouse, and a family tomb. The madrasa is now open to the public as the Sahib Ata Foundation Museum. It was restored between 2006 and 2007 and is known for its dark blue and sky blue Seljuk tiles.





























Thirteen. Artifacts in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.

The Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul has several Seljuk artifacts from Konya.



13th-century stone relief of a warrior.



13th-century Quranic tile.



13th-century Quranic tile.



13th-century mosaic tile.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Konya — Seljuk History and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: The Seljuqs were a Sunni Muslim group from the Oghuz Turkic tribal confederation in the Central Asian steppes. The account keeps its focus on Konya Travel, Seljuk History, Turkey Travel while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

The Seljuqs were a Sunni Muslim group from the Oghuz Turkic tribal confederation in the Central Asian steppes. They were deeply influenced by Persian culture. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, they built a vast Seljuq Empire that stretched across West and Central Asia. The Sultanate of Rum was a state founded by the Seljuqs in Asia Minor. After the Seljuq Empire collapsed, it continued to exist for over a hundred years with Konya as its capital. After the Mongol invasion, the Sultanate of Rum broke into many smaller states called beyliks. One of these beyliks eventually grew into the Ottoman Empire.

Between the 9th and 10th centuries, a unique "Turco-Persian" culture emerged in the Khorasan and Transoxiana regions. This culture formed when Turkic peoples, living in Central Asia and Iran, blended Turkic and Persian cultures. These Turkic peoples were deeply influenced by Persian culture. From the 11th to the 13th centuries, "Turco-Persian" culture spread quickly. As the Seljuq Dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate expanded, this culture reached from the Mediterranean Sea all the way to the mouth of the Ganges River. Later, "Turco-Persian" culture gradually took root in West and South Asia with the rise of the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Dynasty. For several centuries, it became the main culture for the ruling and elite classes.

Konya, as the capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum, was the last Seljuq "Turco-Persian" cultural center after the Seljuq Empire fell. Seljuq culture is a very unique part of "Turco-Persian" culture. It is most famous for its tiles and stone carvings. On this trip to Konya, I visited all the Seljuq-era historical sites in the city. Sadly, some were under repair and I couldn't go inside. I will share the Seljuq sites I saw on this trip.

Contents

1. Historical Introduction

1. The Founding of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum

2. Making Konya the Capital

2. Rumi's Tomb: 1274

1. Rumi in Konya

2. Rumi's Tomb

3. Iplikci Mosque: 1201

4. Karatay Madrasa: 1251

5. Tiles of Kubadabad Palace: 1236

6. Slender Minaret Madrasa (Ince Minareli Medrese): 1268

7. Konya City Walls: 12th-13th Centuries

8. Alaeddin Kiosk: Late 12th Century

9. Alaeddin Mosque: 12th Century - 1235

Ten. Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese): 1242.

Eleven. Sahib Ata Mosque: 1258.

Twelve. Sahib Ata Madrasa: 1258.

Thirteen. Artifacts in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.

1. Historical Introduction

1. The Founding of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum

The Seljuqs were a branch of the Oghuz Turkic tribe. They originally lived as nomads on the Kazakh steppes, north of the Syr Darya River in Central Asia. Their leader, Seljuk Beig, converted to Islam around 985. He then separated from the Oghuz tribal confederation and moved to the Transoxiana region, south of the Syr Darya River.

In 1035, their relationship with the Karakhanid Dynasty got worse. The Seljuqs were forced to move south into the Khorasan region of Persia. They then unexpectedly defeated the large army of the Ghaznavid Dynasty. Soon after, they fully controlled all of Khorasan.

In 1037, Tughril (who ruled from 1037-1063) officially founded the Seljuq Dynasty in Khorasan. They then kept expanding. In 1051, they moved their capital to Isfahan, which was then the most important city in Persia.

Starting in 1040, the Seljuq Dynasty repeatedly attacked Asia Minor, which was under Byzantine rule. They finally defeated the Byzantines completely in the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. After the war, Seljuq Sultan Alp Arslan (who ruled from 1063-1072) sent his distant cousin, Suleiman ibn Qutulmish (who ruled from 1077-1086), to go deeper into Asia Minor. Suleiman moved west all the way, reaching the city of Nicaea on the Sea of Marmara.

In 1077, Suleiman officially founded the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum, with Nicaea as its capital. "Rum" meant "Rome" at that time, and people used it to refer to Asia Minor under Eastern Roman (Byzantine) rule.



The Seljuq Dynasty in 1092, from Wikipedia

2. Making Konya the Capital

The rapid expansion of the Seljuq Dynasty caused panic among Christian states. This directly led to the First Crusade. In 1097, Nicaea, the capital of the Sultanate of Rum, finally fell after a long siege by the Crusaders, forcing the Sultanate to move its capital east to Konya.

Konya was very wealthy in the second half of the 12th century. At that time, the Sultanate of Rum controlled almost all of eastern Anatolia, several port towns on the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and even held a foothold in Crimea for a time, bringing vast trade wealth into Konya.

After the Mongols invaded Central Asia and Persia in the early 13th century, many Turkic and Persian people came to Konya for refuge. In the 1220s, Konya was full of refugees from the Khwarezmid Empire. Many were educated intellectuals or skilled craftsmen, the most famous being the Sufi scholar and great Persian poet Rumi.

In 1243, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was defeated by the Mongol Empire and became a vassal state, but Konya remained the capital. People lived in stability, and many existing Seljuk buildings date from this period.

In the late 13th century, the Seljuks split into many small principalities, including the early Ottoman Empire. These small states nominally recognized the status of the Sultanate of Rum, but the Sultanate could only actually control the limited territory around Konya. At this time, the Karamanids dynasty began continuous attacks on the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, but they eventually failed due to the intervention of the Ilkhanate.

At the end of the 13th century, the Sultanate of Rum fell into a series of internal struggles, and the last Sultan, Mesud II, was killed in 1308. In 1328, Konya was occupied by the Karamanids dynasty, and Seljuk culture finally exited the historical stage. After this, the Ottomans rose on the legacy of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, and Konya would eventually enter its next era.



The Sultanate of Rum in the 12th and 13th centuries, by author DragonTiger23.

2. Rumi's Tomb: 1274

Rumi (1207-1273) was a famous 13th-century Sufi scholar and Persian poet, honored in Turkey as Mevlâna. Rumi died in Konya in 1273 and was buried next to his father's tomb. His successor, Hüsamettin Çelebi, decided to build a mausoleum for Rumi, and the tomb, led by architect Badr al-Din Tabrizi, was officially completed in 1274.

The entire complex includes the tombs of Rumi and his followers, a mosque, a Sufi practice space, and living areas for the practitioners. During the Ottoman era, this place was always the center of activity for the Mevlevi Sufi order.

In 1925, the Republic of Turkey announced the closure of all Sufi practice spaces and the dissolution of Sufi orders. In 1927, the Rumi mausoleum was converted into the Konya History Museum and opened to the public, and it was renamed the Mevlâna Museum in 1954. Today, it is a famous Sufi holy site in Turkey, and people from all over the world come here to visit and make pilgrimages every day.





1. Rumi in Konya

Rumi was born in 1207 into a Persian-speaking family in the Balkh region on the border of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. His father, Baha'ud-Din, was an Islamic scholar and a Sufi mentor.

Between 1215 and 1220, the Mongols invaded Central Asia, and Rumi moved west with his family, eventually arriving in Anatolia after much traveling. In 1228, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I (reigned 1220-1237), invited Baha'ud-Din to the capital, Konya, so Rumi's family finally settled there.

In Konya, Baha'ud-Din served as the head of a religious school and taught Rumi various Islamic knowledge and Sufi practices. After Baha'ud-Din died in 1232, Rumi continued his training under one of his father's students, Burhan ud-Din. In 1240 (or 1241), Burhan ud-Din died, and Rumi officially became an Islamic legal scholar and teacher, beginning to preach and teach students at the mosque.

In 1244, Rumi met the Sufi master Shams Tabrizi, which completely changed his life. He honored Shams as his spiritual mentor, transforming from an Islamic scholar into a Sufi practitioner.

In 1248, Shams suddenly left. Rumi was deeply saddened and went to Damascus himself to look for him, but he found nothing. To express his longing for Shams, Rumi wrote a large number of lyrical poems. At this time, he met a goldsmith named Salaḥud-Din-e Zarkub, who understood Rumi's heart very well, and the two became close friends. Zarkub helped Rumi organize 2,500 lyrical poems into the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi.

After Zarkub died in 1259, Rumi's scribe and favorite student, Hussam-e Chalabi, became Rumi's confidant. One day, Rumi showed Hussam a short piece of narrative poetry he had written, the Masnavi, and Hussam was pleasantly surprised and begged Rumi to continue writing it. So, starting in 1260, Rumi began writing his masterpiece, the Masnavi. During the writing process, Rumi would recite, Hussam would record, and then Rumi would confirm it. This work continued until the very last moments of Rumi's life.

2. Rumi's Tomb

The site of Rumi's tomb was originally a rose garden gifted by the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I, to Rumi's father, Bahauddin. After Bahauddin passed away in 1232, he was buried here, and the site officially became Rumi's tomb in 1274. Later, Rumi's descendants and disciples founded the Mevlevi Order, and this place became the headquarters for the Mevlevi Order.

The main gate of Rumi's tomb (Devisan Kapısı) is located in the northwest corner and currently serves as the museum exit. After entering the main gate, you find a marble-paved courtyard, where the most important buildings are the tomb of Rumi and the mosque on the east side.

The tomb gate (Türbe Kapisi) dates back to 1492.





Inside the tomb gate is a room called 'Tilavet,' which in Arabic means 'reading the Quran with a beautiful voice and correct rhythm.' Before it became a museum, this room was used for the continuous chanting of the Quran, and today it houses various precious calligraphic works.

Walking further inside, you will find the sarcophagi of Rumi, his family, and the leaders of the Mevlevi Order. Rumi's sarcophagus sits under a green spire, covered in brocade embroidered with Quranic verses in gold thread. The sarcophagi of Rumi and his father, along with the surrounding wood carvings, date back to the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, while the outer silver lattice was built in 1579. Unfortunately, this section is currently under renovation and cannot be seen.











Moving forward is the ceremonial hall (Semahane), built during the era of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I (reigned 1520-1566). Before 1926, this was where the Mevlevi Order performed the Sama ceremony, commonly known as the whirling dance.







Today, the ceremonial hall displays many precious artifacts. These include Rumi's own shoulder strap, cloak, and felt hat.







The Masnavi, written in 1278 by the calligrapher Mehmed bin Abdullah Konevi.



The 1366 collection of Rumi's poetry.



A 13th-century bookshelf featuring Seljuk lion patterns.





A 9th-century Quran written in Kufic script.



A Quran written in 1296 by the calligrapher Yakutu'l-Mustasimi.



A Quran from 1314.



Next to the ceremonial hall is a mosque also built during the era of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I (reigned 1520-1566).











In the center of the courtyard is a fountain for wudu (ṣadirvan), built in 1512 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I (reigned 1512-1520).



On the west side of the courtyard is a row of 17 small rooms with domes and chimneys, built in 1584 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Murad III (reigned 1574-1595), which served as living quarters for Sufi practitioners.







Inside, there are many introductions to the Mevlevi Order and some precious artifacts, such as this 13th-century Seljuk-style incense burner with lion patterns.



There is also this copy of the Masnavi, written in 1372 by the calligrapher Hasan bin Osman el-Mevlevi for the Seljuk minister (vazir) Şherefüddin Emir Satı.



On the south side of the courtyard is the kitchen (Matbah), built in 1548 by order of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I (reigned 1520-1566), which provided food for Sufi practitioners until 1926. This was also a place where Sufi masters taught knowledge and the Sama ceremony.









The courtyard also contains the tombs of several Sufi masters of the Mevlevi Order.

The earliest of these is the site of the tomb of Ahmed Eflâkî Dede. Ahmed Eflâkî Dede wrote the important work on Rumi titled 'Menâkibü'l-Ârifîn' and traveled with Rumi's grandson, Ulu Ârif Çelebi, working to expand the influence of the Mevlevi Order throughout Anatolia.

Today, only two curtain walls remain of the tomb's above-ground structure. Research suggests the west wall is likely connected to early 13th-century Mevlevi architecture, while the date on the tombstone is 1360. Additionally, archaeological excavations at the museum have uncovered basements on both sides of the south facade.







3. Iplikci Mosque: 1201

The Iplikci Mosque was built in 1201 by order of the Seljuk minister (vizier) Shams al-Din Altun Aba, with the architect Abu al-Fazi Abd al-Jabbar from Tabriz, Iran; this is important evidence of Persian craftsmen directly influencing Seljuk architecture. This building underwent a series of renovations during the Karaman dynasty, the Ottoman Empire, and modern times. Today, the original mosaic tiles on the mihrab inside the hall have been replaced by marble, but the parts at the bottom covered by carpets are still the original Seljuk-era pieces.













4. Karatay Madrasa: 1251

The Karatay Madrasa was built in 1251 under the direction of Emir Celaleddin Karatay of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum; the madrasa is named after him, and teaching activities continued there until the end of the 19th century.

This building holds a very important place among surviving Seljuk structures featuring mosaic tiles, so it opened to the public as the Tile Museum in 1955. Archaeological excavations and restoration work took place here between 2006 and 2008.







The main gate of the madrasa (religious school) is on the east side. Made of sky-blue and white marble, it is a masterpiece of Seljuk craftsmanship, carved with excerpts from the Quran and information about the school's construction.



The main hall is covered in turquoise, indigo, and black tiles, along with calligraphy of verses, the names of prophets, and the four Rashidun Caliphs.













Inside the domed building to the left of the main hall is the tomb of Celaleddin Karatay, who passed away in 1254. Celaleddin Karatay began serving in the court of the Sultanate of Rum in 1212. He was promoted to Minister of Finance in 1243 and received the noble title of Atabeg in 1249, remaining a key official of the Sultanate until his death in 1254. Celaleddin Karatay served four sultans during his life. He was known for his humility, piety, and simple lifestyle, and he was dedicated to developing science and art. He oversaw many projects, including the Kayseri-Elbistan road, with the Karatay Madrasa being his most famous.





5. Tiles of Kubadabad Palace: 1236

Kubadabad Palace was the summer palace of the Sultanate of Rum. It is located on the shore of Lake Beyşehir, 100 kilometers west of Konya, and was built in 1236 by the Seljuk Sultan Kayqubad I (reigned 1220-1237).

In 1949, Zeki Oral, the director of the Konya Museum, first discovered the ruins of Kubadabad Palace and conducted archaeological excavations in 1952. German archaeologist Katharina Ottodorn conducted further excavations in 1965, followed by Turkish archaeologist Mehmet Önder in 1967. In 1980, Professor Rüçhan Arık led a team from Ankara University to conduct a systematic survey and excavation of the site.



Kubadabad Palace is very different from the Seljuk palaces in Konya and Kayseri. It is far from towns and lacks high city walls; protection for the palace seems to have been provided by a fortress complex on a nearby island.

Sixteen buildings have been excavated at Kubadabad Palace. The main structure is a large 50x35 meter palace where many ornate underglaze tiles were found. Some of these tiles are now on display at the Karatay Tile Museum.





































Additionally, the Tiled Kiosk at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums also houses tiles from Kubadabad Palace.



6. Slender Minaret Madrasa (Ince Minareli Medrese): 1268

The Ince Minaret Medrese (Slender Minaret Madrasa) was built by Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali between 1263 and 1268. Sahib Ata was an important official in the Seljuk Rum Sultanate court from the 1250s until his death in 1288. After 1277, he even held great power in the Sultanate. This madrasa remained active until the end of the 19th century. After restoration in 1956, it opened to the public as the Museum of Stone and Wood Carvings.







The madrasa once had a slender, towering minaret, which is where the school gets its name. Unfortunately, lightning destroyed the minaret in 1901. Today, only the bottom section remains, where you can see typical Seljuk sky-blue tiles.







The gate of the madrasa is considered one of the best examples of a Seljuk architectural entrance.







The interior of the main hall also features Seljuk sky-blue tiles.







Seljuk stone carvings collected in the museum.









From Alaaddin Hill.







7. Konya City Walls: 12th-13th Centuries

Research shows that the earliest Konya city walls (Konya Kalesi) were located on Alaaddin Hill and were built by the descendants of Alexander the Great during the Hellenistic period. The Konya city walls were rebuilt four times in history. In 1221, the Seljuk Sultan Kayqubad I (reigned 1220-1237) built new outer walls beyond the inner walls on Alaaddin Hill. At that time, the Konya city walls were 30 meters high and had 12 gates.



An illustration of the Konya city walls, address https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/konya

According to the 17th-century Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi, the Konya city walls were still intact in the 17th century. However, as time passed, the walls began to gradually deteriorate during the late Ottoman period. The inner walls on Alaaddin Hill were the first to be demolished, and the outer walls were also dismantled in the late 19th century. The government buildings of that time were built using stones from the walls.

Today, most of the ruins of the Konya city walls have not been preserved. Fortunately, some stone carvings are currently kept in the Konya Museum of Stone and Wood Carvings, including winged angels and double-headed eagles, which are fine examples of Seljuk stone carving.















8. Alaeddin Kiosk: Late 12th Century

The Alaaddin Pavilion (Alâeddin Köşkü) is the only remaining tower ruin of the Konya city walls. Located on the north side of Alaaddin Hill, it was originally a brick tower of the inner city wall. The Seljuk Sultan Kilij Arslan II (reigned 1156-1192) built his estate right next to the wall and turned this tower into part of the estate, which is why it has been preserved to this day.

When I visited, the Alaaddin Pavilion and the ruins of the Kilij Arslan II estate were under renovation and could not be entered.



The Alaaddin Pavilion in an old photograph, from https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/konya







Manor ruins.

The original stone lions from the Alaeddin Pavilion are now kept at the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul.







9. Alaeddin Mosque: 12th Century - 1235

Alaeddin Mosque is located on the east side of Alaeddin Hill in the center of Konya. It was once the royal mosque for the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and houses the tombs of past sultans.

Records show the first Alaeddin Mosque was rebuilt on top of a Christian church shortly after the Seljuks captured Konya in the late 11th century. Many parts of the building were taken directly from nearby Byzantine structures.

The oldest existing inscription in the mosque dates back to the reign of the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Mesud I (reigned 1116–1156). The mosque's ebony pulpit (minbar) features an inscription from 1155, and the prayer niche (mihrab) and the tiles on the vaulted ceiling were likely built during the same period.

In 1219, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum, Kaykaus I (reigned 1211–1220), began rebuilding the Alaeddin Mosque. He moved the main entrance from the west side to the north and added a massive structure on the north side overlooking the city and facing the sultan's palace. The final building plans were never finished because the sultan died the following year.

In 1235, Sultan Kayqubad I (reigned 1220–1237) added a large hall made of forty-two stone columns to the east of the prayer niche (mihrab). The mosque's current east gate and minaret were built during the Ottoman period.

Unfortunately, the Alaeddin Mosque was under renovation when I visited. Only the east hall built in 1235 was open, so I could not see the west hall or the tomb section.



Alaeddin Mosque, address https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/konya

Reposted from the web

Summary: Konya — Seljuk History and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Ten. Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese): 1242. The account keeps its focus on Konya Travel, Seljuk History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.











The Seljuk Rum Sultan's Tomb is under renovation and not open.

Ten. Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese): 1242.

The Glass Madrasa (Sırçalı Medrese) was commissioned in 1242 by Emir Bedrettin Muslih. Its architect was Muhammed bin Osman el Tusi. This building is known for its colorful mosaic tiles.

During the reign of Seljuk Rum Sultan Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246), Bedrettin Muslih served as the Islamic law tutor for the next sultan, Kayqubad II (1249–1257). His and his family's tombs are inside the madrasa.

After the 17th century, the madrasa slowly fell into disrepair. Many mosaic tiles fell off. In the 19th century, some classrooms inside were torn down and rebuilt as brick houses.

After 1964, this building opened to the public as a tomb museum. But I went on both Saturday and Sunday, and it was closed both days. So I only saw the main gate with its geometric reliefs.













Eleven. Sahib Ata Mosque: 1258.

The Sahib Ata Mosque, like the Thin Minaret Madrasa (İnce Minareli Medrese), was built by Sahib Ata Fahreddin Ali. The architect was Keluk bin Abdullah. Sahib Ata was an important official in the Seljuk Rum Sultanate court from the 1250s until his death in 1288. After 1277, he even held great power in the Sultanate.

The mosque is most famous for its main gate and minaret. It was restored between 2006 and 2007.

















The main prayer hall of the mosque was destroyed by fire in 1871. Only the beautiful Seljuk tiled mihrab survived. Sadly, I forgot to go inside and photograph the mihrab, which left me with regret. However, some of the mihrab's tiles are on display in the Tile Kiosk of the Istanbul Archaeology Museums.







Twelve. Sahib Ata Madrasa: 1258.

Besides the mosque, Sahib Ata also built an entire complex here. It includes a madrasa, a Sufi lodge, a bathhouse, and a family tomb. The madrasa is now open to the public as the Sahib Ata Foundation Museum. It was restored between 2006 and 2007 and is known for its dark blue and sky blue Seljuk tiles.





























Thirteen. Artifacts in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum.

The Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul has several Seljuk artifacts from Konya.



13th-century stone relief of a warrior.



13th-century Quranic tile.



13th-century Quranic tile.



13th-century mosaic tile.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Siri Fort, Mongol Wars and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In my previous article, The First City of Delhi—The Minaret Reaching the Clouds, I mentioned that in 1221, Genghis Khan sent a large army to chase the last Sultan of the Khwarazmian Empire, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, all. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Siri Fort, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Contents

1. Mongol invasion of India

2. Chagatai Khanate's broken dreams in Delhi

1. Chagatai Khanate invades the Khalji Dynasty

2. Qutlugh Khwaja's expedition to Delhi

3. Deploying troops and setting up formations

4. Zafar Khan dies in battle

5. Tomb of Zafar Khan

3. Building Siri City

4. Siege of Siri City

1. The Chagatai army attacks

2. Besieging Siri

5. Siri becomes the capital

1. Tohfe Wala Gumbad mosque

2. Hauz Khas royal reservoir

6. Mongol defeat

1. The first crushing defeat

2. The final failure

3. The Tower of Skulls

7. Reasons for the Mongol failure

1. Mongol invasion of India

In my previous article, The First City of Delhi—The Minaret Reaching the Clouds, I mentioned that in 1221, Genghis Khan sent a large army to chase the last Sultan of the Khwarazmian Empire, Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, all the way to the banks of the Indus River. Jalal ad-Din asked the Sultan of the Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, Shams ud-Din Iltutmish, for help, but he was refused.

In 1223, after forming an alliance with local people, Jalal ad-Din captured Lahore, the former capital of the Delhi Sultanate, but Iltutmish took it back in 1228. In the winter of 1241, the Mongol army invaded the Indus Valley again, captured Lahore, and slaughtered the city.

It was not until the 1250s, during the reign of Mongke Khan, that large-scale invasions of the Delhi Sultanate stopped because the commander of the western expedition, Hulagu, was busy invading the Abbasid Caliphate and Syria. The Mongols and the Delhi Sultanate entered a period of peace that lasted for decades.

Because the Mongol army sacked Lahore, the early political center of the Delhi Sultanate, the strategic importance of Delhi continued to rise.



The locations of Delhi, Lahore, and important cities in Central Asia; this map is not to scale but is an overhead view.

2. Chagatai Khanate's broken dreams in Delhi

1. Chagatai Khanate invades the Khalji Dynasty

Starting in the 1280s, Kaidu, the grandson of Ögedei Khan, and Duwa, the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate, fought together in Central Asia and then invaded India from Afghanistan.

In 1296, Alauddin Khalji succeeded as the Sultan of the Khalji Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. In my previous article, The First City of Delhi—The Minaret Reaching the Clouds, I described in detail how Alauddin expanded the mosque in the city of Lal Kot in Delhi. In this article, I will introduce how Alauddin built a new fortress to defend against the Chagatai Mongol army.



A portrait of Alauddin drawn in the late 17th century.

2. Qutlugh Khwaja's expedition to Delhi

In the winter of 1297, the Mongol army of the Chagatai Khanate first attacked Punjab on the northwestern border of the Delhi Sultanate. Alauddin sent troops to defeat the Mongol army in February 1298. People say 20,000 Mongol soldiers were killed, and many more were captured and killed in Delhi.

In late 1298 and early 1299, another Chagatai army invaded Sindh and was defeated again by Alauddin's general, Zafar Khan.

After the shame of two defeats, the Chagatai Khanate made full preparations and finally launched a third invasion in 1299. This time, the Great Khan Duwa of the Chagatai Khanate sent his son, Qutlugh Khwaja, to march directly to the capital, Delhi, determined to completely conquer the Delhi Sultanate.

During their expedition, the Chagatai army did not loot cities or destroy fortresses. They avoided all confrontations with the Delhi Sultanate's northwestern border guards, trying to save their strength for a final battle against the main Delhi Sultanate forces in Delhi. During this time, Alauddin's general Zafar Khan sent a letter to Qutlugh Khwaja inviting him to a decisive battle, but Qutlugh Khwaja refused. Qutlugh Khwaja replied that a king only fights a king. He demanded that Zafar Khan come to Delhi to fight him alongside Alauddin's main army.

Finally, the Chagatai army camped at a place called Kili, 10 kilometers from the city of Lal Kot in Delhi. Residents around Delhi heard the news and flooded into Lal Kot. The city's streets, markets, and mosques became extremely crowded. The Chagatai army blocked trade routes to Delhi, causing prices inside Lal Kot to skyrocket.



Lal Kot city

3. Deploying troops and setting up formations

According to the 14th-century Indian chronicler Abdul Malik Isami, Alauddin only received the news after the Chagatai army had crossed the Indus River. He had only one or two weeks to prepare for battle, so he immediately sent messages everywhere to quickly reinforce Delhi.

Alauddin set up his military camp northeast of Lal Kot. His uncle Alaul Mulk suggested that Alauddin negotiate with the Chagatai Khanate, but Alauddin rejected this advice. He believed that if he showed weakness, the people and the army would lose respect for him. So, he publicly announced a decisive battle against the Chagatai army.

Alauddin had his uncle Alaul Mulk manage Lal Kot during this time and gave him the keys to the royal palace, telling him to hand them over to the final winner of the battle once the war ended.

According to the 14th-century historian Ziauddin Barani, the Chagatai army in this battle numbered 100,000 or even 200,000, but in reality, there were likely not that many.

According to the 16th-century historian Firishta, the Delhi Sultanate army had 300,000 horses and 2,700 elephants, but this figure is clearly exaggerated. The Delhi Sultanate's massive army stretched for several kilometers and was very difficult to control. Therefore, Alauddin issued an order before the battle that any officer who left their post without authorization would be beheaded.



Alauddin's army, drawn by Rajputs in 1825

4. Zafar Khan dies in battle

Because the preparations were too rushed, Alauddin kept trying to delay the battle to wait for reinforcements. He also hoped that the delay would make the Chagatai army more exhausted.

However, the Delhi Sultanate general in charge of the right wing, Zafar Khan, attacked the Chagatai left wing without orders. The Chagatai commander of the left wing, Hijlak, feigned a retreat, and Zafar Khan rashly pursued him.

Both sides marched quickly for 55 kilometers. Zafar Khan's infantry and cavalry fell behind, leaving only 1,000 cavalrymen at the end. Meanwhile, 10,000 ambush troops commanded by Noyan Taghai had already hidden 3 kilometers away from Zafar Khan, blocking his path back to the camp.

After consulting with his officers, Zafar Khan decided that even if he broke through to return to the main camp, he would be severely punished by Alauddin for acting without orders, so he chose to fight the Chagatai army to the death.

According to the chronicler Isami, Zafar Khan led his 1,000 cavalrymen to kill 5,000 Chagatai soldiers, and he was eventually reduced to only 200 men. Zafar Khan's warhorse was killed, so he dismounted to duel the Chagatai general Hijlak one-on-one. Finally, an arrow pierced his armor and struck his heart.

On the other side of the battlefield, Zafar Khan's son Diler Khan led his troops to bravely repel the Chagatai right wing commanded by Temur Buqa. The main Chagatai force attacked Alauddin but was repelled, and a large number of Mongols were killed.

Zafar Khan's death caused pessimism among the Delhi Sultanate officers. The next morning, many officers suggested that Alauddin retreat to Lal Kot to defend the city. Alauddin refused, saying that Zafar Khan's death was due to acting without orders, and he would not take a single step back. Meanwhile, the Chagatai army remained still, so no fighting occurred on the second day.

On the night of the third day, the Chagatai army began to retreat. Alauddin did not pursue them and returned to Lal Kot.

Some Indian scholars believe that Zafar Khan's heroic fighting caused the Chagatai army to retreat out of fear. However, the real reason was that the Chagatai commander Qutlugh Khwaja was seriously wounded in the battle and died from his injuries on the way back.

5. Tomb of Zafar Khan

After Zafar Khan died, Alauddin was very angry about his unauthorized actions. He ordered his name to be removed from various records, which made Zafar Khan's life story mysterious.

Zafar Khan's tomb is currently part of the high-platform fortress of the Mausoleum of Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq, the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

Ghazi died in 1325. One theory is that the Tomb of Zafar Khan was already built on the current site before his death, and Ghazi incorporated it into the fortress while building his own tomb. Another theory is that Ghazi specifically built the Tomb of Zafar Khan next to his own tomb.

The smaller dome nearby is the Tomb of Zafar Khan.



Inside the Tomb of Zafar Khan is an octagonal burial chamber, and the name Zafar Khan is carved into the stone on the south gate.













3. Building Siri City

To defend against the next invasion by the Chagatai army, Alauddin began building a new fortress, Siri Fort, northeast of the city of Lal Kot.

Unlike the city of Lal Kot built by Hindus, the construction of Siri Fort used many Turkic craftsmen. Due to the Mongol invasions of Central and West Asia, large numbers of Turkic people came to settle in Delhi. Turkic craftsmen from the Seljuq dynasty had excellent fortress-building skills and contributed greatly to the construction of Siri Fort.

In 1398, the famous Timur invaded Delhi and recalled that Siri was a circular city with very tall buildings. These buildings were surrounded by walls made of stone and brick, which were very sturdy.

The yellow circle in the image below shows the location of the Siri Fort walls.



Siri Fort is northeast of Lal Kot. In the image, the green area is Lal Kot built in the mid-11th century, the red area is the Qila Rai Pithora city expanded in 1160 (or 1180), and the blue area is the Qutb Mosque, which was started in 1193. The yellow area is Siri Fort.



Legend says Siri Fort had seven gates, but only the ruins of the southeast gate remain today.

Today, only broken walls remain of Siri Fort. The main reason for the city's destruction is that later rulers constantly took bricks and stones from it to build new structures. The greatest destruction came from Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540-1545), the founder of the Sur dynasty, who moved large amounts of bricks and building components from Siri Fort to build a new city.



West wall of Siri Fort.









Ruins of the northwest wall.





4. Siege of Siri City

1. The Chagatai army attacks

In early 1303, both of Alauddin's armies were attacking Hindu regions in the south. The Chagatai Khanate scouted that Delhi was undefended, so the Chagatai army led by Nayan Targhi launched an invasion of Delhi in August 1303. Nayan Targhi had served as a commander during the 1299 invasion of Delhi.

According to the 14th-century chronicler Ziauddin Barani, the Chagatai army had 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers at the time. They did not encounter much resistance along the way, and the Delhi Sultanate troops they passed were not strong enough to attack the Chagatai army.

Alauddin rushed back to Delhi one month before the Chagatai army arrived, but he still did not have time to prepare strong defenses. The weapons of his army had been corroded by the rainy season in South India, and he had also lost too many horses and supplies while campaigning in the south.

Alauddin quickly sent people to ask for reinforcements from various places, but the Mongols set up blockades on all roads leading to Delhi. Not only could information not get out, but all trade routes were cut off, and Delhi once again faced a shortage of goods.

Another army Alauddin had sent to South India returned to Delhi after a long journey, but they were blocked by the Mongol army and had to stay southeast of Delhi.

2. Besieging Siri

Given these conditions, Alauddin decided to set up his main camp inside the unfinished Siri Fort.

At that time, Siri Fort had dense forests and rivers on its east, west, and south sides, with only the north side having no natural defenses. Alauddin dug a trench outside his camp at Siri Fort and used door panels taken from houses in Lal Kot to build a fence along the trench. The entire defensive line was guarded by several squads of soldiers, with five fully armed elephants in front of each squad.

The Chagatai army launched two or three charges against Siri Fort but were repelled, so they turned to looting the areas around Delhi. The Chagatai army captured the Sultan's warehouses and sold goods to local residents at low prices.

After a two-month siege, Nayan Targhi could not break into Siri Fort and finally retreated with the loot he had gathered.

Ziauddin Barani, a Delhi resident who experienced the siege, later recalled, "This was the first time the citizens of Delhi felt such great fear of the Mongols. If Nayan Targhi had besieged the city for one more month, the entire city would have fallen." ”

5. Siri becomes the capital

Before the 1303 Chagatai siege of Siri Fort, Alauddin often went into battle himself. He became much more cautious after this siege. Afterward, he left almost all military operations to his generals and stayed behind to build the city of Siri.

Alauddin built a palace in Siri, making it the new capital of the Delhi Sultanate instead of Lal Kot, and the population grew quickly.

1. Tohfe Wala Gumbad mosque

The Tohfe Wala Gumbad mosque sits right next to the western wall of Siri and is one of the few buildings inside the city that still stands today. There are no records showing when it was built. This mosque looks very different from other buildings from Alauddin's time, but some of its wall structures have features typical of Khalji dynasty architecture.























The mihrab facing west.

2. Hauz Khas royal reservoir

The term Hauz Khas comes from Persian, where 'Hauz' means a pool or lake and 'Khas' means royal.

Located west of Siri, Hauz Khas is a royal reservoir that Alauddin ordered to be dug to provide water for the city. The reservoir later silted up, but Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388) of the Tughlaq dynasty cleared it out and built many structures around it, which I will describe in detail in later diary entries.





6. Mongol defeat

1. The first crushing defeat

In 1305, Ali Beg and Tartaq of the Khongirad tribe led the Chagatai army to invade India again. The Mongols had already seen Delhi's strong defenses, so they chose to bypass the city and head southeast along the foothills of the Himalayas into the Ganges Plain. On December 20, 1305, the two armies met, and the Chagatai army suffered a crushing defeat. Alauddin warmly welcomed his victorious army back at his palace in Siri. Malik Nayak's army marched in two rows, and the line was so long you could not see the end of it.

After that, 9,000 captured Mongol soldiers were presented, including top commanders like Ali Beg and Tartaq. The historian Ziauddin Barani claimed that Alauddin ordered all the prisoners to be trampled to death by elephants. The 16th-century historian Firishta stated that the skulls of 8,000 of these prisoners were used to build the city of Siri.

2. The final failure

In 1306, Duwa, the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate, sent another large army to avenge the defeat of 1305. According to the chronicler Isami, the Chagatai sent 100,000 troops, though this number is certainly exaggerated. Alauddin sent a large army led by General Malik Kafur, with Malik Tughluq—who would later establish the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate—serving as the vanguard.

The two armies faced each other for a long time, with neither side willing to attack first. Eventually, the Chagatai army attacked and scattered the Delhi Sultanate's forces. However, the Delhi Sultanate quickly regrouped and completely crushed the Chagatai army. The remaining Chagatai troops fled toward the Indus River, and many Mongol cavalrymen were captured or killed. According to the Persian historian Wassaf, about 60,000 Mongols were killed, and Alauddin ordered a tower made of skulls to be built in front of the Badaun Gate in the city of Lal Kot. In his book Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, written in 1357, the historian Ziauddin Barani mentioned that this tower could still be seen in his time.

3. The Tower of Skulls

Today, not far west of Siri, there is a tower called the Chor Minar, which was built by order of Alauddin and has 225 holes in it. According to locals, this is the 'Tower of Thieves,' where the heads of beheaded thieves were placed on spears and stuck into the holes to scare other thieves.

However, some historians believe these skulls were actually those of the Mongol Muslims massacred by Alauddin's order. Another possibility is that they were part of the 8,000 Mongol prisoner skulls used to build Siri after the Mongol defeat in 1305.





7. Reasons for the Mongol failure



The book History of the Mongol Empire's Conquest of Central Asia includes a valuable analysis in the section 'Reasons for the Mongol Defeat' regarding why the Mongol army ultimately lost to the Delhi Sultanate. I have summarized it here:

Conflicts and civil wars between the Mongol khanates made it impossible for them to send an overwhelming joint army to invade India. Duwa Khan of the Chagatai Khanate spent his life fighting in Central Asia, so he could only send one expeditionary force after another to India.

Although the number of Mongol troops was exaggerated, they included many women and children, so the actual number of combatants was not that high. Alauddin often captured many Mongol women and children, who were then sold in the markets of Delhi or killed.

The quality and toughness of the Mongol elite declined significantly by the late 13th and early 14th centuries compared to the eras of Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan. In 1303, they retreated from the siege of Siri in Delhi without fighting a single hard battle, which would have been unthinkable under Genghis or Ogedei.

Duwa Khan of the Chagatai Khanate was the powerful ruler who ensured the Mongol expeditions to India. After Duwa died in 1307, his successors were weak. They could barely protect their core territories in Central Asia, let alone worry about India.

Sultan Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate had excellent military skills. He mostly chose a defensive policy, especially in his later years, by focusing on castle defense. This made the Mongol army, which wanted to use cavalry in open fields, lose all its patience.

Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Qutb Minar, Mosques and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the Indian epic Prithviraj Raso, Anangpal Tomar, the founder of the Tomar Dynasty, built Delhi's first city, Lal Kot, in 736 AD. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Qutb Minar, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Contents

1. Delhi in the Hindu Era

2. Entering the Islamic Age

1. Ghurid Dynasty

2. Muhammad of Ghor conquers Delhi

3. Qutb rules Delhi

3. The first mosque in Delhi

1. Hindu and Jain architectural components

2. Iron Pillar of Delhi

3. The Qutb Minar reaching into the clouds

4. Iltutmish expands the mosque

1. Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

2. Iltutmish takes over as Sultan

3. Territorial expansion

4. Expansion of the Qutb Mosque

5. Tomb of Iltutmish

5. Alauddin Khalji expands the mosque again

1. Khalji Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

2. Alauddin Khalji launches a coup

3. Accumulating wealth

4. Expanding the mosque

5. Alai Minar

6. Tomb of Alauddin Khalji

6. Mughal Dynasty architecture at the Qutb Mosque

1. Tomb of Imam Zamin

2. Late Mughal Dynasty mosque

3. Mughal Dynasty era gate

1. Delhi in the Hindu Era

In the Indian epic Prithviraj Raso, Anangpal Tomar, the founder of the Tomar Dynasty, built Delhi's first city, Lal Kot, in 736 AD. However, the history in this epic is not reliable, and some modern research suggests Lal Kot was more likely built in the mid-11th century. At that time, the city of Lal Kot had a perimeter of 3.6 kilometers and was home to about five or six thousand residents.

In 1160 (some say 1180), the Chauhan (Chahamanas) Dynasty from Rajasthan defeated the Tomar Dynasty, occupied Lal Kot, and expanded it into Qila Rai Pithora. The new city was four times larger than the original, with a perimeter reaching 8 kilometers, but later generations still tended to call the city Lal Kot.

The Chauhan Dynasty was later classified as one of the Rajput dynasties, although the identity of Rajput did not exist at that time. The term Rajput comes from the Sanskrit "raja-putra," meaning "son of a king." These tribes later became a group within the Kshatriya caste and linked their origins to myths and legends.

In the image below, the blue part is the city of Lal Kot, and the yellow part is the city of Qila Rai Pithora.



2. Entering the Islamic Age

In 1193, the Ghurid Dynasty defeated the Chauhan Dynasty and occupied the city of Lal Kot in Delhi, marking Delhi's entry into the Islamic age.

1. Ghurid Dynasty

The Ghurid Dynasty appeared in eastern Iran and the Afghanistan region starting in the 9th century. Whether the rulers were Pashtun or Tajik is still a matter of debate. In 1011, the Ghurid dynasty was conquered by the Persianized Turkic Muslim Ghaznavid dynasty, shifting from Buddhism to Islam.

In 1163, Ghiyath ad-Din Muhammad became the Sultan of the Ghurid dynasty. He and his brother, Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, launched a series of wars, attacking from Afghanistan all the way into northwestern India. In 1186, the two brothers captured the ancient city of Lahore in Punjab and took the last Ghaznavid Sultan, Khusrau Malik, prisoner, marking the end of the Ghaznavid dynasty.

2. Muhammad of Ghor conquers Delhi

In 1192, Muhammad Ghori led a large army to fight a decisive battle against the Rajput forces of the Chauhan dynasty. Exaggerated accounts claim that Muhammad Ghori brought 120,000 fully armed soldiers, while the Rajput army consisted of 300,000 cavalry and infantry, plus 3,000 elephants. Muhammad Ghori launched a surprise attack on the Rajput army before dawn, capturing and executing Prithviraj III.

In 1193, Muhammad Ghori conquered the city of Lal Kot in Delhi, then returned to Iran to deal with threats on his western border. Before leaving, he appointed General Qutb al-Din Aibak as the governor of northern India.

3. Qutb rules Delhi

Qutb al-Din Aibak was born into a Turkic family and was sold into slavery in Persia during his childhood. After his master died, he was sold again by the master's son, eventually becoming a slave to Muhammad Ghori. Qutb al-Din Aibak was highly valued by Muhammad Ghori, who appointed him as a military commander, and he later became a general of the Ghurid dynasty.

Starting in the 9th century, as the Arab Caliphate fractured, many Islamic rulers began using Turkic military slaves from Central Asia. These Turkic slave soldiers who converted to Islam were usually called Mamluk, a word meaning 'owned' in Arabic. Many Turkic Mamluks used their superior military skills to become generals and even rulers.

After becoming governor, Qutb al-Din Aibak used Delhi as his headquarters to gradually conquer all the Rajput dynasties in northern and central India, becoming the de facto ruler of northern India.

3. The first mosque in Delhi

After capturing Delhi in 1193, Qutb al-Din Aibak began building the first mosque on the ruins of the city of Lal Kot.

The red sections in the two images below show the location of the mosque built by Qutb al-Din Aibak.





1. Hindu and Jain architectural components

The Qutb mosque is known to later generations as the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and is one of the oldest surviving mosques in India. According to a Persian inscription on the mosque's east gate, the mosque was built after tearing down 27 Hindu and Jain temples from the Tomar and Chauhan dynasties. Because of this, many of the mosque's building components are original pieces from those Hindu and Jain temples.

The mosque gate.





The dome likely came from the construction of a Hindu or Jain temple.



The cloister inside the mosque.

















The arch in front of the prayer hall.









The prayer hall has already collapsed.











The well-preserved east wall of the mosque.





2. Iron Pillar of Delhi

The famous Iron Pillar of Delhi stands in the center of the mosque courtyard. The pillar was cast between the 3rd and 4th centuries, and the time it was moved to the mosque is still debated. The oldest Sanskrit inscription on the iron pillar is from a king named Chandra. The most common view is that this king was Chandragupta II, who ruled the Gupta Empire from 380 to 415. This period was the peak of the Gupta Empire and is considered the 'Golden Age' of ancient India, when architecture and sculpture reached their height.

The high corrosion resistance of this iron pillar has attracted great interest from scientists and archaeologists, and it is considered a the highest level of ancient Indian iron-smelting technology. The pillar's corrosion resistance is believed to come from its high phosphorus content and Delhi's alternating wet and dry climate, which allowed a protective passivation film to form on the pillar.



3. The Qutb Minar reaching into the clouds

The most striking part of the Qutb mosque is the Qutb Minar, which later generations hailed as the tallest minaret in the ancient Islamic world.

The Qutb Minar is located outside the southeast side of the mosque courtyard. It is built of red sandstone, follows the style of Iranian minarets, and its patterns were influenced by the famous Minaret of Jam in contemporary Afghanistan. The tower is 72.5 meters high and divided into 5 levels. Each level has a protruding balcony, and there are 379 spiral stairs inside.





The first level of the Qutb Minar was built under the personal supervision of Qutb al-Din Aibak himself, so it contains many praises for Muhammad Ghori. The top three levels were finished in 1220 by his son-in-law Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (who I will introduce in detail later), and the style is basically the same as the Qutb period. The Qutb Minar from this period is made of red sandstone and carved with Kufic script.





In 1369, lightning destroyed the top of the Qutb Minar, and the Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, Firoz Shah Tughlaq, rebuilt two more levels on top. The two new levels include marble, and you can now see a clear difference in architectural style between the bottom three levels and the top two.



4. Iltutmish expands the mosque

1. Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

In 1202, Muhammad Ghori became the Sultan of the Ghurid dynasty after his brother passed away. In 1206, Muhammad Ghori handed over all affairs in India to Qutb and set off from India to return to Afghanistan. On March 15, while his carriage was traveling through Punjab, Pakistan, Muhammad Ghori was assassinated.

Muhammad Ghori had no children, so he treated his Mamluk slaves like his own sons during his lifetime. After he died, the country split into several parts, and Qutb established his own sultanate with Lahore as the capital. Because this sultanate later made Delhi its capital for nearly 300 years, later generations called it the Delhi Sultanate. Also, because Qutb was a Mamluk slave, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate is known to later generations as the Mamluk Dynasty or the Slave Dynasty.

In 1210, Qutb died in an accident. The Delhi Sultanate did not have a fixed rule for succession. After Qutb died, the Turkic nobles in Lahore elected Aram Shah to succeed as Sultan. But Aram Shah was not good at governing the country, so a group of forty nobles called Chihalgani soon betrayed him and elected Shams ud-Din Iltutmish to succeed as Sultan.

In 1211, Iltutmish defeated Aram Shah on the plains near Delhi and seized the throne.

2. Iltutmish takes over as Sultan

Iltutmish came from the Turkic Ilbari tribe and was sold as a Mamluk slave during his childhood. He was first taken to the slave market in the ancient Central Asian city of Bukhara, then transferred to the Ghurid dynasty and bought by Muhammad Ghori's court.

Iltutmish quickly gained the appreciation of Muhammad Ghori and became his personal attendant. Qutb, who was the governor of Lahore at the time, also took a liking to Iltutmish, so he bought him from Muhammad Ghori in Delhi for a high price.

Iltutmish was also deeply appreciated by Qutb; he married Qutb's daughter and was entrusted by Qutb with the governorship of several important regions. After Qutb died in 1210, he defeated the successor Aram Shah in 1211 and became the third Sultan of the Mamluk Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

3. Territorial expansion

At the beginning of his reign, Iltutmish consolidated the territory around Delhi through a series of wars. In 1214, Iltutmish officially moved the capital to the city of Lal Kot in Delhi.

In 1221, the Mongol army under Genghis Khan arrived at the banks of the Indus River. Iltutmish did not want a direct conflict with the Mongols, so he turned eastward and conquered the Bengal region.

The upheaval caused by the Mongol invasion of Central Asia led a large number of Turkic officers to come to India, so Iltutmish recruited a powerful army and conquered Sindh and Multan in 1228.

In 1228, Iltutmish received recognition from the Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate and was granted a robe and gifts by the Caliph, which gave the Delhi Sultanate legitimacy in the Islamic world.

4. Expansion of the Qutb Mosque

In 1225, as the political situation stabilized, Iltutmish began to expand the Qutb Mosque, and the expanded part is also called the Iltutmish Mosque.

The green part in the picture below shows the scope of the mosque expansion by Iltutmish.



During Iltutmish's expansion, Muslim craftsmen replaced the Hindu craftsmen of the Qutb era, and they no longer used components from the original temples, so the architectural style of this period is more Islamic than the Qutb period.

The best-preserved part of Iltutmish's expansion is the beautifully carved archway.









Behind the archway, in the lower right corner, is the south cloister of the Iltutmish expansion.



The east cloister is visibly simpler than the cloister built by Qutb.



The west colonnade has already collapsed.



5. Tomb of Iltutmish

Iltutmish passed away in 1236. In 1235, the year before he died, he built his own tomb next to the Qutb Mosque.





The stone carvings on the walls are very ornate, featuring bells, tassels, lotus flowers, and diamond emblems, all of which are elements from Hinduism.







The structure at the corner of the tomb's ceiling is called a squinch, which is used to connect the walls to the dome. The earliest squinches appeared in the Sassanid Empire of Persia and were later used in Islamic architecture, becoming most common in Iran.

The squinches in the Tomb of Iltutmish indicate that there was once a dome on top of the tomb, but it later collapsed.



The ornate mihrab on the west side.





The tombstone in the center is made of white marble.



The actual grave of Iltutmish is not inside this building. In 1914, Gordon Sanderson of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) excavated the real burial chamber 20 steps north of the Tomb of Iltutmish.

5. Alauddin Khalji expands the mosque again

In 1310, Sultan Alauddin Khalji of the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate expanded the Qutb Mosque for the third time.

1. Khalji Dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

The Khaljis were a Turkic people who had lived among the Pashtun tribes in Afghanistan for over 200 years. By the time they arrived in Delhi in the 13th century, their customs had become Pashtunized, leading the Turkic nobility in India to even regard them as Afghans.

The Khaljis came to Delhi to serve the Sultan during the reign of Ghiyas ud din Balban, the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (1266–1287). During Balban's era, the Delhi Sultanate stabilized after being on the verge of collapse, with its territory covering most of northern India.

After Balban died in 1287, his young successor became addicted to wine and women, and the Turkic nobility fell into factional fighting. In 1290, the military officer Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji launched a coup to overthrow the Mamluk dynasty, founding the second dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate—the Khalji dynasty.

2. Alauddin Khalji launches a coup

Firuz Khalji was already 70 years old when he took the throne. He was recognized as a gentle and humble monarch, but because he was not considered a Turk, Turkic nobles always tried to overthrow him.

Firuz pardoned one person after another who tried to overthrow him, but he eventually died at the hands of his nephew and son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji. Alauddin's original name was Ali Gurshasp. His father was Firuz's eldest brother, but he died early, so Alauddin was raised by Firuz. Firuz not only raised his nephew but also married his daughter to him.

After Firuz became Sultan, Alauddin's wife suddenly became a princess and began to act very arrogantly, wanting to dominate Alauddin. Her mother also indulged her daughter's arrogant behavior, so Alauddin had a very poor relationship with both his wife and his mother-in-law.

In 1291, Alauddin became the new governor of Kara. In Kara, people who had previously wanted to overthrow Firuz began to incite Alauddin to overthrow his uncle. Combined with his miserable marriage, he began to resolve to get rid of Firuz.

After five years of raising funds and hiring an army, in 1296, Alauddin led an army of 8,000 cavalry to loot Devagiri, the capital of the Yadava dynasty in southern India, and obtained a massive amount of wealth. When Firuz heard the news, he was very happy and set out from Delhi, intending to meet Alauddin on the way to see the spoils, but Alauddin took a detour and returned directly to Kara. One of Firuz's subordinates suggested that the Sultan go to intercept Alauddin, but Firuz believed that Alauddin would bring the wealth to Delhi, so he returned to Delhi instead.

In Delhi, Alauddin's younger brother Almas Beg assured his uncle of Alauddin's loyalty and begged him to pardon Alauddin's mistakes, saying that Alauddin would likely commit suicide out of guilt. Firuz, who cared for his nephew, immediately sent someone to Kara with a letter of pardon and promised to travel to Kara afterward.

During Ramadan in 1296, Firuz led a large army to Kara to meet Alauddin. He ordered his commanders to lead the main army directly to Kara, while he crossed the Ganges River with 1,000 soldiers. As they neared Kara, Alauddin sent his brother Almas to meet his uncle and persuade him to come alone, saying that otherwise, Alauddin would commit suicide out of fear.

When he arrived at Kara, Alauddin threw himself at Firuz's feet. Firuz caressed Alauddin, kissed his cheek, and scolded him for doubting his uncle's affection for him. At that moment, Alauddin signaled his subordinate Muhammad Salim, who swung his sword at Firuz. After being struck by the first blow, Firuz struggled to run toward the boat, but Muhammad swung a second time, and Firuz was finally killed. Alauddin immediately put on the crown and declared himself the new Sultan.

Alauddin then started moving toward Delhi, recruiting as many soldiers as he could along the way. Meanwhile in Delhi, Firoz's widow named her young son Qadr Khan as the new Sultan. This made the eldest son, Arkali Khan, who was the governor of Multan, furious, and he refused to help his mother defend against Alauddin's army.

In October 1296, Alauddin reached Delhi, defeated his mother-in-law's army, and took the city. On October 21, Alauddin officially became the Sultan of the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

3. Accumulating wealth

During his first year on the throne, Alauddin used generous gifts to secure his power while balancing the influence of various nobles, which quickly brought stability to Delhi. By his second year, Alauddin began arresting and killing the nobles who had served Firoz. He seized their property to gain massive wealth and replaced the old nobles with new ones loyal to him.

Starting in 1297, Alauddin defended against the Mongol armies of the Chagatai Khanate while constantly conquering Hindu kingdoms in the south. In 1306, Alauddin defeated the last Mongol army sent by the Chagatai Khan, Duwa. After that, he began regular raids into Mongol territory in Afghanistan.

Alauddin's conquest of southern India was also very successful. In 1311, Alauddin sent an army to the Pandyan dynasty at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. They seized a huge amount of treasure, elephants, and horses, which was considered the greatest haul of wealth since Muslims first occupied Delhi.

Besides looting the Hindu kingdoms, Alauddin carried out a series of economic reforms. Regarding land, he collected land taxes directly from Hindu rural areas without using any middlemen. Regarding income, he hired many accountants in the court and gave heavy punishments for bribery. Regarding markets, Alauddin used market inspectors and spies to strictly control the prices of goods. He also built state-owned grain warehouses and banned farmers and merchants from storing grain privately. By strictly controlling market prices, he was able to maintain a massive army while paying his soldiers lower wages.

4. Expanding the mosque

After accumulating great wealth, Alauddin began expanding the Qutb Mosque in 1310. The new mosque was much larger than the one expanded by Iltutmish.

The blue section in the image below shows the area of Alauddin's mosque expansion.



The most famous part of Alauddin's mosque expansion that still stands today is the southern gate, later called the Alai Darwaza. This building uses red sandstone and white marble inlaid with beautiful Naskh (a style of Arabic calligraphy) script. The geometric, openwork marble window screens show the high skill of the Turkic craftsmen.





This building is also known as the first structure in India built strictly according to Islamic architectural principles. During the Mamluk dynasty, the domes and arches were not strictly Islamic in form and were called false domes and false arches. This building is considered the first in India to use true Islamic domes and arches, though the patterns on the building are still full of Hindu elements.







5. Alai Minar

After doubling the size of the Qutb Mosque, Alauddin Khalji began building the Alai Minar, which was planned to be twice as tall as the Qutb Minar. However, the project was abandoned after the first level reached 24.5 meters. Today, only a huge core of rubble and stone remains of the tower.



6. Tomb of Alauddin Khalji

In his final years, Alauddin grew to distrust his officers and only favored the eunuch slave general Malik Kafur. Some scholars believe Alauddin and Kafur had a homosexual relationship, but others think their bond was not sexual.

In 1315, Alauddin became seriously ill. He appointed Kafur as the regent (Na'ib), giving him actual power. Kafur convinced Alauddin to purge many capable ministers and kept outsiders from seeing him during his final days.

As Alauddin lay dying, Kafur gathered all the important officials at his bedside to announce that Alauddin's 6-year-old son, Shihabuddin Omar, was the new heir and that he himself was the regent. According to the 14th-century Indian chronicler Abdul Malik Isami, Alauddin said nothing while in bed, and his silence was taken as consent.

Alauddin died on the night of January 4, 1316. Kafur buried him in the tomb already built in the southwest corner of the Qutb Mosque. According to the 14th-century historian Ziauddin Barani, it was Kafur who killed Alauddin.

Alauddin's tomb is connected to the madrasa (Islamic school) he built during his lifetime. This is also the first building in India where an Islamic madrasa and a tomb are connected. The madrasa is well-preserved today, but the tomb is badly damaged and has lost its dome.

Madrasa







Dome







A tomb with a completely collapsed roof.





The room in the middle is likely where Alauddin is buried.





The image below shows a satellite view and a reconstruction of the Qutb Mosque. The red circle marks the mosque built by Qutb in 1193, the green circle marks the expansion by Iltutmish in 1225, and the blue circle marks the expansion by Alauddin in 1310. The Alauddin tomb and madrasa are inside the blue circle at the southwest corner.



Reconstruction image link: https://visual.ly/community/in ... mplex



6. Mughal Dynasty architecture at the Qutb Mosque

1. Tomb of Imam Zamin

Next to the south gate, Alai Darwaza, is the tomb of Imam Zamin, built in 1539. Not much is known about this imam's life, but he was likely an imam at the Qutb Mosque.





Door lintel.





The mihrab on the west side.



2. Late Mughal Dynasty mosque

This is a small mosque built during the late Mughal Empire, located northeast of the Qutb Mosque.







Prayer hall.



The mihrab on the west side.



3. Mughal Dynasty era gate



There are also some Mughal-era tombs scattered around the mosque.