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Summary: Gubeikou Mosque — Muslim Heritage Near the Great Wall is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: On the first day after Eid al-Fitr, I decided to visit the mosque in Gubeikou, Miyun. The account keeps its focus on Gubeikou Mosque, Beijing Mosques, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

On the first day after Eid al-Fitr, I decided to visit the mosque in Gubeikou, Miyun. I left home just after 5:00 a.m. to catch the Huaimi suburban railway line at Beijing North Station. The Baikui shop on Kuanjie Street was already open at 5:30 a.m., so I bought a savory crepe (jianbing), tofu pudding (doufunao), and tea-boiled eggs (chajidan). The tofu pudding had plenty of meat in it!







You don't need to enter the main train station to catch the Huaimi line; you can board right from the underground plaza at the Xizhimen subway exit, which is very convenient.



I ate my breakfast after getting on the train.







I arrived in Gubeikou after more than two hours. Gubeikou train station sits halfway up Wohu Mountain. The Great Wall is above it, and a wooden boardwalk leading to Hexi Village is below. The scenery is beautiful.







I arrived at the Gubeikou Mosque at the east end of the village, and a Hui Muslim man from the neighborhood opened the door for me. The original construction date of the mosque is unknown, but a stone tablet from the Ming Dynasty inside the mosque records that it was renovated in the second year of the Chongzhen reign (1629).

During the Kangxi reign, Gubeikou was a vital military hub for the Emperor's campaigns against the Dzungars and served as an imperial route for his trips to Rehe for hunting and inspections. In the 32nd year of the Kangxi reign (1693), a military camp called Liulinying was established on the mountain in Hexi, Gubeikou, and was guarded by a large force. In the 34th year of the Kangxi reign (1695), a Hui Muslim officer named Ma Jinliang was transferred to Gubeikou to serve as the regional commander due to his military achievements. In the 42nd year of the Kangxi reign (1703), he was promoted to commander-in-chief of the Zhili region. People called him General Ma the Hui, and he was stationed in Hexi Village, Gubeikou. While in Gubeikou, Ma Jinliang oversaw the renovation of the Gubeikou Mosque. The current mosque is basically the same size as it was after that renovation during the Kangxi reign. Ma Jinliang also rebuilt the tomb of Bo Hazhi Shaihai Baba in Heying, Changping. The tomb still keeps a stone tablet inscribed by Ma Jinliang in the 53rd year of the Kangxi reign (1714).

As the imperial road fell into disrepair at the end of the Qing Dynasty, Liulinying was abolished in the 16th year of the Guangxu reign (1890), and Hexi Village gradually became quiet. After the 1960s, the Gubeikou Mosque was taken over by the brigade headquarters, and religious activities stopped. It was renovated in 2004 for the Olympics, but religious activities have not resumed to this day.



















On the east side of the main hall are the north and south side rooms. Like the Heying Mosque in Changping, they are built with stone in the middle and bricks around the edges, which is a traditional feature of mountain architecture. I only noticed the original murals preserved on the side rooms when I looked at my photos later. It is a pity I was careless and did not record them. I hope fellow friends (dost) who visit in the future can take pictures and share them.





Outside the south side room sits a casket for the deceased (maiti). When the faith in a community declines, a mosque gradually changes from a place for Allah's worship into a place only for funeral rites (maiti). The next step is abandonment. I have encountered all these situations during my travels.



In the middle of the courtyard stands a pavilion-style building. The stone tablet lying on the ground next to it was unearthed earlier. It is still unclear if it is a tablet pavilion or the remains of a hanging flower gate (chuihuamen) from the second courtyard. On the east side of the pavilion are some foundation stones. According to the layout of traditional northern mosques, these should be the remains of the main gate and the gatehouse (daozuofang).





The brick carvings of dua and colorful paintings at Gubeikou Mosque.















The tablet from the 9th year of the Chongzhen reign in the courtyard commemorates a renovation, but unfortunately, the text is too worn to read.



The National Library also holds a stone tablet record from the Gubeikou Mosque dated 1870, the ninth year of the Tongzhi reign of the Qing Dynasty. It records that in 1870, the late Qing general Zheng Kuishi, who was the Gubeikou commander at the time, joined local elders from Rehe, Dage Town (now Fengning, Chengde), and Gubeikou to donate funds to rebuild the mosque's kiln hall (yaodian), expanding it from one story to two.



Right next to the south side of the mosque lives the Hui Muslim uncle who holds the key. This is a very beautiful traditional courtyard, and the main house features exquisite brick carvings. I originally wanted to visit, but the uncle later rode off on his three-wheeled motorcycle and never came back, which was another regret of this trip.





Some Hui Muslims still live at the east end of Hexi Village, mostly with the surnames Ha and Ma, who are descendants of the former Gubeikou garrison. In the village's East Stockade (Dongzhazi), I saw a house with a Bismillah door plaque (tasimi mendu), which is also a very traditional residence inside. The East Stockade (Dongzhazi) is the former east gate of the Liulin Camp.





Crossing the Chao River eastward from Hexi Village brings you to Gubeikou Village. There is a halal snack shop here, but unfortunately, the owner hadn't started cooking because they weren't offering dine-in service. I will have to try it next time.









The village preserves many historical sites, including an old stone bridge built in 1378, the eleventh year of the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty, where the stone slabs on the bridge deck are connected by iron clamps.







Gubeikou Town is located between Shanhai Pass and Juyong Pass, serving as an important gateway to the capital from Mongolia and the Northeast. The town was built in 1378 (the eleventh year of the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty) under the direction of Xu Da on the foundation of the Northern Qi Great Wall, and it was extensively renovated in 1567 (the first year of the Longqing reign of the Ming Dynasty) under the direction of Qi Jiguang. After the Japanese army occupied Gubeikou in 1933, they tore down the north gate, which was then restored in 2012. North of Gubeikou is the Crouching Tiger Mountain (Wohushan) Great Wall. The mountain top looks like two tigers lying down. It faces the Panlong Mountain Great Wall to the south, and together they guard the main pass at Gubeikou.

















I took a green-skinned train back. The carriage was very empty. With the green fans and windows that actually open, it felt just like being a kid again.







The train stops at every small station.



The train passes through the Miyun Reservoir.





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Summary: Niujie Shahai Tomb — Beijing Muslim History and Cultural Room is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In 2016, I visited the Niujie Mosque and took photos of the Sheikh tombs (shaihai fen) and the cultural relic exhibition hall. The account keeps its focus on Niujie, Beijing Muslim History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In 2016, I visited the Niujie Mosque and took photos of the Sheikh tombs (shaihai fen) and the cultural relic exhibition hall. My phone camera quality was just okay back then, so I planned to take better photos to share later, but both the tombs and the hall ended up being closed for several years. I heard the exhibition hall has been renovated, and I hope to see it in its new state soon.

Sheikh tombs (shaihai fen)

Inside the Niujie Mosque in Beijing, there are two tombs of sages from the Western Regions who came to China during the Yuan Dynasty. The one on the west side belongs to Ahmed Burtani, who passed away in 1280, and the one on the east side belongs to Ali Imad al-Din, who passed away in 1283.





According to the Republic of China era Beijing City Annals, after the Song Dynasty moved south, two men came from the West. One was Muhammad, the grandson of Sheikh Ahmed Burtani, from Ghazni in the Western Regions. The other was Ali, the son of Sheikh Imad al-Din, from Bukhara in the Western Regions. They lived in the mosque, spoke with great eloquence, and carried themselves with elegance. After they passed away, they were buried in the mosque. Their tombs remain there today, and the inscriptions on the tombstones still serve as proof.

It is now generally accepted that Ali Imad al-Din came from the ancient Central Asian city of Bukhara. However, the birthplace of Ahmed Burtani varies significantly across different translations. According to the translation by Zhao Zhenwu, a famous Hui Muslim scholar and teacher at Chengda Normal School during the Republic of China era, Ahmed Burtani came from Ghazni, an ancient city in Afghanistan. This is the version widely used today. Ma Jinpeng, who studied at Al-Azhar University in Egypt and later became an Arabic professor at Peking University, translated it as 'E'lu' and noted it was a place near Medina. Additionally, the Niujie Mosque once kept a wooden plaque from the Qianlong period of the Qing Dynasty, commonly known as the 'White Plaque,' which stated he came from 'Alepu,' the ancient Syrian city of Aleppo.

The ancient cities of Bukhara and Ghazni were incorporated into the Mongol Empire in 1220 and 1221, respectively, during Genghis Khan's western campaign against the Khwarazmian Empire. Aleppo was captured by Hulagu Khan in 1260, but it was soon recaptured by the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. The expansion of the Mongol Empire removed travel barriers across the Eurasian interior, and Muslims from Central and West Asia began to enter China in large numbers.

According to the Yuan dynasty collection Qiujian Ji, there were 2,953 households of Hui Muslims in Beijing by 1263, most of whom were wealthy merchants. Before the Yuan dynasty finished building the capital of Dadu in 1285 and ordered residents to move in, most people lived in the old city of Zhongdu from the Jin dynasty. Niujie was located in the heart of this old city and was the most important residential area for Muslims in Beijing at the time.





Cultural Exhibition Hall

On the east side of the Niujie Mosque stands a building with seven large tiled rooms, commonly known as the Seven Rooms (qijianfang). It was first built in 1442 during the seventh year of the Zhengtong reign. The main rooms were used for teaching scriptures, while the side rooms were used to store them. Today, it serves as a cultural exhibition hall.





Inside the cultural exhibition hall is a plaque featuring an imperial edict from the Kangxi Emperor, which reads: Inform all provinces: if officials or civilians hold grudges over minor matters. And falsely accuse Muslims of plotting a rebellion, officials in charge have the authority to execute them first and report it later. Hui Muslims across the land must follow their faith and not disobey this order, so as not to betray my grace and my intention to protect the path.

Legend has it that in March 1694, during the month of Ramadan, the Kangxi Emperor received a secret report from Li Yu, the official in charge of the southern city of Beijing, claiming that the Muslims of Niujie were gathering at night to plot a rebellion. The Kangxi Emperor asked the Grand Councilors Niu Xi and Wang Xi, who lived near Niujie, and neither of them had heard anything about it. Emperor Kangxi traveled in disguise with two ministers. One night, he saw many people praying Taraweeh inside the brightly lit Niujie Mosque. Seeing they were doing nothing wrong, he issued an imperial decree.

Additionally, the Niujie local chronicle "Gangzhi," copied by Shen Fengyi during the Daoguang era (and likely written during the Yongzheng era), records that in 1694, the Niujie Mosque imam Saiyide Ma Tengyun was involved in a spy case. The story goes that Galdan of the Dzungar Khanate sent two Hami Muslims to Beijing as spies, and Ma Tengyun of the Niujie Mosque often hosted them for meals. Later, one of the men was caught by the Lifanyuan (Court of Colonial Affairs) guards, and he named Ma Tengyun. The Lifanyuan immediately arrested Ma Tengyun and Yin Liangxiang from the Jiaozihutong Mosque, while the city patrol troops blocked off Niujie. The Lifanyuan petitioned to slaughter all Hui Muslims in the capital, but Kangxi rejected the request. Kangxi ordered, "The Hui Muslims of the capital are also my children... just strictly hunt down the spies, do not implicate innocent people." In the end, Ma Tengyun and Yin Liangxiang were released, and mosques across Beijing held prayer services to give thanks. This event matches the timing and content of the imperial decree stele, and it is likely the reason the decree was issued.





A hanging scroll for Imam Wang Yousan from 1868 (the seventh year of the Tongzhi era). Imam Wang Yousan, whose given name was Zhenyi and courtesy name was Yousan, was known as "Yibaba" and came from a family of Niujie imams. Chunfeng Hutong in Niujie was originally called Wang Laoshifu Hutong. It sits right next to the south side of the Niujie Mosque and was named after the Wang family who lived there for generations. The words 'Shouqian Wang Si Lao Aheng' on the left side of the banner refer to Imam Wang Shouqian, the father of Imam Wang Yousan. He was a very famous imam in Niujie, known as Master Wang Si, and was hailed as the 'leading authority on Islamic scripture in the North'.

Inside the Niujie Mosque stands a stone tablet from 1903, written by Xu Qi, a cabinet scholar and vice minister of the Ministry of Rites. It is titled 'Stele Describing the Virtuous Deeds of Wang Yousan and Haoran in Protecting the Hui Muslim Community' and records two heroic acts by Imam Wang Yousan.

The first story tells of 1900, when the Eight-Nation Alliance entered Beijing and bandits in the city took the chance to loot, throwing society into chaos. Niujie Mosque Imam Wang Yousan and his nephew, Imam Wang Haoran, organized the local families to watch over and help each other. They punished those who broke the law, which finally saved Niujie from disaster.

The second story tells of 1902, when the Qing government built a railway and planned to tear down the Hui Muslim cemetery at Sanlihe outside Xibianmen. Imam Wang Yousan and Imam Wang Haoran used their connections with local elders to find the minister in charge of the railway to negotiate. In the end, the Qing government decided to change the plans and build around the Sanlihe Hui Muslim cemetery.



Glazed glassware from the Kangxi era

Incense box with Arabic calligraphy



Lotus-shaped incense burner



Three-legged incense burner with cloud-shaped handles and Arabic calligraphy







Lotus-shaped incense burner with two handles and Arabic calligraphy





Vase (gu) with Arabic calligraphy



Ming Dynasty blue and white flower vase with Arabic calligraphy and unique shape



A Ming Dynasty Zhengde period blue and white porcelain tripod incense burner with Arabic calligraphy.



A Qing Dynasty cloud-shaped incense holder inscribed with the words Niujie Great Mosque (Niujie Da Libaisi).



A Qing Dynasty bronze tripod incense burner with Arabic calligraphy.





Books published by the Niujie Islamic Press including 'Chinese-Arabic Mieta', 'Beginner's Doctrine Textbook', 'Verification of Doubts', and 'Guide to Islam (Qingzhen Zhinan)', along with a stamp from the 'Manager Ma Kuilin Publishing House'.

The Islamic Press was founded in the early Republic of China era by Imam Ma Kuilin, a long-time resident of Niujie. In the 1920s and 1930s, it printed various religious textbooks and scholarly works that were sold across the country. After Imam Ma Kuilin passed away in 1940, his fourth son, Ma Zhongdao, continued the business until it was merged into the Xuanwu Xinhua Bookstore in 1956. After 1966, all the books from the Islamic Press held by the Xuanwu Xinhua Bookstore went missing, and Ma Zhongdao was forced to burn his own personal collection. Because of this, the books from the Islamic Press collected by Bi Jingshi have become the most precious records.







The 'Guide to Islam' on the left is printed with: 'Reprinted in the ninth year of Tongzhi, written by Mr. Ma Wenbing, a descendant of the Prophet, and held by the Haopan Street Mosque in the provincial capital of Guangdong'.

The author of 'Guide to Islam' was Ma Zhu, courtesy name Wenbing, from Baoshan, Yunnan. Born in 1640, he was said to be the 15th-generation descendant of the Xianyang King Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din, which is why he was called a 'descendant of the Prophet'. Ma Zhu was poor as a child but loved to learn. At 18, he was recommended as an imperial guard for the Southern Ming dynasty, but he resigned in less than two years to return home and focus on his studies. After turning 30, he left Yunnan to visit scholars and teach in various places. At the same time, he began compiling his research into the book 'Guide to Islam'. He finished the first draft at 35 and continued to add to and revise it until he finalized the text at age 70.

Ma Zhu began copying and printing the Guide to Islam (Qingzhen Zhinan) during his lifetime, but early versions are lost. The oldest surviving version is the 1811 Jinling edition. Later editions include the 1828 Chengdu Ma Da'en edition, the 1884 Guanzhong Hanyutang edition, and the 1885 Chengdu Baozhentang edition. The Niujie Mosque holds the 1870 edition printed by the Haopan Street Mosque in Guangzhou. The preface of the Haopan Street edition says that Bao Anji used the Guide to Islam as a textbook while studying at a mosque as a child. He was very sad when he lost the book later in life. In 1868, Bao Anji accidentally found the book, paid a high price to buy it, and finished reprinting it after careful proofreading.



The thirteen traditional mosque education books include handwritten copies of the Five Linked Volumes (Lianwuben), the Hutobu, the Baiyani, the Zaowu Misuhaba, the Gulostan (Garden of Truth), and the Quran with Persian annotations.



The Five Linked Volumes (Lianwuben) is a collective name for five textbooks used as the foundation for learning Arabic grammar and syntax.



The Zaowu Misuhaba means lighting a bright lamp. It is a further explanation of the fifth Arabic syntax textbook in the Five Linked Volumes, called the Misubaha.



The Baiyani means to clarify. It is a book on Arabic rhetoric.



The Hutobu was originally written in Arabic and later translated into Persian. It is a Persian commentary on 40 Hadiths.



The Gulostan (Garden of Truth) is a literary masterpiece by the 13th-century Persian poet Saadi. It is a textbook for studying Persian literature.



These include the Ming dynasty Confucian work Complete Collection of Human Nature and Principle (Xingli Daquan), the book Explanation of the Five Pillars of Islam (Tianfang Wugong Shiyi) where the famous Qing scholar Liu Zhi uses Confucian philosophy to explain the five pillars of Islam, the poetic Islamic primer Tianfang Sanzijing which Liu Zhi wrote in the style of the Three Character Classic, and Yuan Guozuo's annotated version, the Simple Explanation of the Tianfang Sanzijing (Tianfang Sanzijing Zhujie Qianshuo).

Yuan Guozuo was born in Nanjing in 1712. He studied Liu Zhi's Chinese Islamic classics deeply from a young age and later published many of Liu Zhi's works. In 1809, he wrote annotations for the Tianfang Sanzijing, which became an important version of the book.







There is also the Chinese-Arabic primer (Zhong-A wen haitie) published in 1947 by the Arabic primary and middle school on Xiaosi Street in the Xuanwai district of Beiping.



I also want to share a large copper pot in the courtyard. It is inscribed with 'Made in the month of Ramadan, Renyin year of the Kangxi reign of the Great Qing, by imperial decree for the mosque' and 'Remade in the month of Ramadan, Bingzi year of the Qianlong reign of the Great Qing, by imperial decree for the mosque.' This means it was made in 1702 and remade in 1739, which was eight years after the imperial decree plaque from the Kangxi era. This pot was used to cook meat porridge during mosque gatherings. In the 1960s and 1970s, it was hidden inside the minaret (bangkelou) under a pile of junk, which is how it survived.





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Summary: Bohaji Tomb Inscriptions: Beijing Muslim History and the Stele Writer is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In mid-April, I visited the tomb of the Western Regions sage Bo Hazhi, who came to China in the early Ming Dynasty, located in Heying Village, east of Changping, Beijing. The account keeps its focus on Bohaji Tomb, Islamic Inscriptions, Beijing Muslim History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In mid-April, I visited the tomb of the Western Regions sage Bo Hazhi, who came to China in the early Ming Dynasty, located in Heying Village, east of Changping, Beijing. I was warmly welcomed by Uncle Zhang Youjin, whose family has guarded the tomb for generations. See my article, 'Visiting the Tomb of the Western Regions Sage Bo Hazhi'. Later, at Uncle Zhang's request, I transcribed and proofread the inscriptions on the three Ming Dynasty Wanli era steles, one Qing Dynasty Kangxi era stele, and one Qing Dynasty Xuantong era stele currently in the cemetery. The National Library of China holds a rubbing of one of the Ming Wanli steles. Uncle Zhang told me that after the 1960s, the nearby primary school took it to weigh down a basketball hoop, and its whereabouts are now unknown. I transcribed it based on images from the library's official website, though many characters are hard to read because they are unclear.

I also researched the authors of the steles and the information about the mosque donations mentioned in the Xuantong stele, and I have attached these details below the transcriptions.



1. Stele from the first year of the Xuantong era





In Heying Village, east of the city in Changping Prefecture, Shuntian Prefecture, there is an old

tomb of a Sheikh (shaihai) built during the early Ming Dynasty. Every year on the 24th day of the third lunar month, which is the anniversary of the Sheikh, Hui Muslims from near and far gather to recite

dua for the sage Bo Hazhi, remembering the kindness he showed people during his life. This tradition of visiting the tomb has existed for a long time and does not cause any trouble for the local area. The Han people have their own temples, and the

Imperial Court has its ancestral temples; all have set times for paying respects to show gratitude. This is not unique to Islam. We Hui Muslims follow the path of faith as our guide, observing the principles of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trust. Our faith requires us to

practice charity, fasting, and pilgrimage, keeping ourselves free from the corruption of alcohol, lust, wealth, and vanity to achieve spiritual perfection. The Han people frequently build temples to honor their sages, so how much more should we honor our

sage's original tomb? There were many pine and cypress trees in front of the tomb, but now they have been cut down to pay for school expenses. Since the Tang and Han dynasties, Hui and Han people have had their own religious rules. Being born into the Hui

faith, who would not feel heartbroken to see the traces of this tomb destroyed and trampled? It is a pity that those who claim to follow the path have drifted away, and we Hui Muslims have no way to guide the simple-hearted.

Hearing this, I could not sit by. I rushed to the prefecture to report it. By the grace of the authorities, an order was issued to stop the cutting of trees and protect the site, and the case was officially filed and posted.

I feared the paper notice would rot over time, so I have now carved it into a stone tablet to preserve it.

This shows the kind heart of the honorable official from Yangzhou. May it last forever, and this is my record of it.

Yang, a candidate for prefect wearing a peacock feather, serving as the magistrate of Changping Prefecture, with five honorary ranks and ten recorded merits.

A formal notice strictly forbidding this act. The case is based on a petition from Hui Muslims in villages including Shahe Town, Gaoliying, the capital, Madian, and Shangqinghe, stating that outside the east gate of the city, Hejia...

Guanshi Village, Pingxifu, Haidian, Shucun, and Anheqiao.

There is an old tomb of a saint (shaihai) in Yingcun, built during the Ming Dynasty. It has stood for hundreds of years without any controversy or rumors, and there is even a stone tablet record.

The text lists the titles of officials from past dynasties. Every year on the 24th day of the third month, the anniversary of the saint, Hui Muslims from near and far gather to honor his great virtue.

They visit the tomb to pay respects, a tradition held for a long time. However, there is a rumor that people want to sell the old pine and cypress trees inside the tomb grounds to fund the local school.

The Hui Muslims could not sit by and watch, so they petitioned for an order to stop the cutting and save the old trees. Based on this, besides the official report, I am issuing this notice.

This is a strict prohibition. Everyone must know that from the date of this notice, no one may suggest cutting down the pine and cypress trees in front of the saint's tomb, or they will face investigation.

Everyone must obey this and not violate it. Take note of this notice.

The eighth day of the ninth lunar month in the first year of the Xuantong reign.

A public notice was posted at the Hejiaying tomb of the sheikh.

From this day on, no one is allowed to bury anyone within this tomb courtyard, regardless of their religious background. This rule applies to all existing tomb markers, regulations, and grave foundations.

No one is allowed to cut down pine or cypress trees. Anyone who breaks this rule is not a true follower of the faith. We have investigated and confirmed the original ancient site.

The names of those who helped repair the stone tablets and trees are all recorded on the back of the tablet.

Back side:





We have confirmed the existence of one tomb of the sage Bo Haji, seven ancient graves, and one tomb of the sage who originally rode a white camel. All are brick tombs surrounded by pine and cypress trees.

There are 85 trees, four stone tablets from the Ming Dynasty, and one stone tablet from the Kangxi reign of the current dynasty. All are listed on the tablet as a permanent record. The donations from various parties are listed below.

Imam Ma Jinsheng of the Xiguanshi Village mosque, along with Zhang Jizong (rank 7), Gao Zhaoming (rank 7), Li Chunze (rank 7), and the village leader with a peacock feather (rank 2).

Li Jintang (expectant circuit intendant of Zhejiang, rank 2), Li Minghe (rank 5), Li Mingda (rank 5), and Li Fengrui (rank 5).

Li Baochen (rank 3), Yang Deqing (rank 5), Li Xilun (expectant assistant magistrate, rank 5), Huang Jinbao (rank 6), and Li Qingyuan (rank 6).

Li Xilin (assistant prefect, rank 7), Li Guishen (scholar), and Ma Qi, a graduate of the Shuntian Police Academy. The village of He together donated 30 silver dollars. Gaoliying.

At Pingxifu Mosque, Imam Zhang Hexiang, community leaders Ma Ling, Ma Wengui, Yang Xiufeng, Ma Gong, and Ma Kai donated 10 silver yuan to the Xiyu Pavilion.

At Shangqinghe Mosque, community members Ma Kuisheng, Zhao Yong'an, Yong Kui, Zhao Quan, Zhao Yongshan, and Zhao Wanchang donated 3 taels of silver, and Zhao Liang donated 5 taels, for a total of 8 taels.

At Shucun Mosque, community members Bai Ruzhen, Gao Yuting, Xia Jun, and An Dechun donated 10 silver yuan. Imam Ma Douxuan and mosque leader Xia Yongqing led the effort.

At Anheqiao Mosque, community members Man Wenmo, Ma Yunde, Li Qinggui, Xia Ruibin, and An Hongxiang donated 5 silver yuan.

At Haidian Mosque, community members Yang Dianhong, Zhongying reserve lieutenant Liu Cheng, Bai Jingwen, Bai Jingzhang, Liu Wanheng, Yang Lin, and Zhang Xi donated 7 silver yuan, while Xia Ruiwang donated 4 silver yuan, totaling 11 silver yuan.

At Haidian Mosque, community members Yang Jiantong, Hong En, Zhao Ming, and Zhao Yongkuan, along with imperial physician Feng Guozhi, Ma Xingkui, Shen Zhongkuan, and Zhang Xing'an, donated 5 silver yuan.

Yang Mao from Changying in Tongzhou donated 3 silver yuan, Han Yongxing from Manziying in Tongzhou donated 1 tael of silver, and Wang Fusheng from Yujiawu in Tongzhou donated 1 tael of silver.

Baodi County resident and Shun-tian cavalry drill officer, also serving as a scout team officer for the third cavalry troop, Gao Qingshan donated 1 tael of silver. At Madian Mosque, Imam Zhang Dechun and community members Ding Chengliang,

Wang Dechen, Ding Shan'en, and Ma Heming donated a total of 5 silver yuan.

At Shahe Town, Ma Lin, a fourth-rank official with a peacock feather and reserve lieutenant, donated 5 taels of silver. Zhang Tianhe donated 5 taels, and Hai Deshun and Gu Zhen each donated 1 tael.

Gu Wang, Li Wanshan, Li Wanyou, Li Wanyu, Li Cheng, and Huang Ming each donated 1 tael of silver.

Ma Bin, An Yonghe, Wei Fushun, Wang Xiangchen, Jin Yonglong, and Wang Hongsheng each donated 1 tael of silver.

Jin Yongxiang donated one tael of silver, Huang Fuxiang donated one tael of silver, Li Chengshun donated one tael of silver, and Wang Shaoxiang donated one tael of silver. The whole county donated another two taels, making a total donation of thirty taels.

The total amount received was ninety-eight taels, six mace, and seven candareens of silver. The cost for the stone tablet, materials, and labor was sixty-seven taels of silver.

The remaining thirty-one taels, six mace, and seven candareens of silver will be used in the spring of the following year to renovate the old grave, build a stone tablet pavilion, repair the surrounding walls, and rebuild the two gates. A separate record is available for verification.

Written by Li Tinghua, a student of the Confucian school in Yanqing Prefecture. The mosque committee members are Li Quancheng, Jin Yongxiang, Wei Fushun, Li Wanshan, and An Yonghe.

The managers are Imam Li Chengyu of the Shahe Town mosque and Ma Lin, a local official with a fourth-rank peacock feather and the title of lieutenant.

The three religious leaders are Li Quanming, Ma Fuquan, Li Chenggu, Wang Guzhen, and Zhang Tianhe.

Established on the third day of the twelfth lunar month in the first year of the Xuantong reign of the Great Qing Dynasty.

Brief introduction to the mosques mentioned in the text:

Xiguanshi Village Mosque is located in Yangfang Town, Changping District. It was founded in the seventh year of the Hongzhi reign of the Ming Dynasty (1494), renovated in the twenty-seventh year of the Jiajing reign (1548), and the main hall was rebuilt in the forty-eighth year of the Kangxi reign (1709). It underwent multiple renovations and expansions during the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns. Empress Dowager Cixi rested at the mosque while fleeing in 1900. After returning to the capital, she bestowed a plaque and provided silver for repairs.

Gaoliying Mosque, now known as Gaoliying Mosque, is located in the seventh village of Gaoliying Town. It formerly belonged to Changping County and was transferred to Shunyi in 1955. The mosque was first built during the Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty, renovated during the Tongzhi reign, and repaired again in 1939.

Pingxifu Mosque is now known as Xiaoxinzhuang Mosque. It is located south of Pingxifu in Beiqijia Town, Changping District. It was first built during the Qing Dynasty, renovated in 1951, and rebuilt in 1997.

Shangqinghe Mosque is located on Second Street in Qinghe Town, Haidian District. It was first built during the Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty, though some say it was during the Qianlong reign. It was originally located on the south bank of the Qinghe River. In the 27th year of the Guangxu reign (1901), Empress Dowager Cixi was renovating the Summer Palace. The mosque used connections through palace eunuchs to hire the craftsmen working on the Summer Palace to rebuild the mosque on the north bank of the Qinghe River. It was renovated again in 1940.

Shucun Mosque is located outside the north gate of the Old Summer Palace in Haidian District. It was first built during the Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty, though some say it was during the Yongzheng reign. It was renovated during the Tongzhi reign.

Anheqiao Mosque is located next to Xiangshan Road at the southern foot of Hongshan Mountain in Haidian District. It was built by Hui Muslims who came here to make a living after the Changchun Garden was established during the Kangxi reign. It was renovated many times during the Qianlong and Guangxu reigns and the Republican period. In 1950, it was relocated due to the dredging of the Jingmi Diversion Canal, and it was rebuilt again between 2003 and 2005.

Haidian Mosque is located on Suzhou Street in Haidian District. It was first built during the Ming Dynasty, though some say it was during the Qing Kangxi reign. It was expanded during the Jiaqing reign and renovated during the Guangxu reign. In 1997, it was demolished and moved westward during the renovation of Xilu in Haidian Town.

Madian Mosque is located on the west side of Madian Street outside Deshengmen in Haidian District. It was first built during the Qing Kangxi reign and renovated during the Daoguang reign and the Republican period.

Shahe Town Mosque is located in Nanyi Village, Shahe Town, Changping District, on the north bank of the South Shahe River. It was first built during the Ming Dynasty and renovated between the 21st and 31st years of the Guangxu reign (1895-1905). In 1911, a rear hall and a Western-style gate were added.

Tongzhou Changying is now known as Changying in Chaoyang District. Legend says it was a military camp for Chang Yuchun's troops when they attacked the Yuan capital in the early Ming Dynasty. Changying Mosque was first built during the Zhengde reign of the Ming Dynasty and rebuilt during the Qing Jiaqing reign. It was renovated many times afterward and expanded again in 2002.

Tongzhou Manziying is now known as Wanziying in Chaoyang District. Wanziying Mosque was first built during the Qing Dynasty and expanded during the Republican period.

Yujiawu in Tongzhou is now Yujiawu Township in Tongzhou District. The Yujiawu mosque was first built during the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty, renovated during the Jiaqing reign of the Qing Dynasty, and rebuilt in 2003.

2. Stele record of the sage's tomb from the 46th year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty.

Front side:



Stele record of the sage's tomb.

To build a great legacy over thousands of years, one must be a person of great virtue... to establish great achievements. At the edge of the sky, there is the Western Regions Huihui Kingdom, tens of thousands of miles away.

The people of this land all show respect.

Without shadow or image, unique and one, it is...

Taking repentance and goodness as the teaching. This teaching has words, which are the words of heaven... the scriptures of heaven... incomparable. Now, those who follow this teaching clean their clothes and hats,

watch their diet, examine their hearts and minds, and perform namaz five times a day, facing west to bow and pray. If one follows the teaching, one will surely receive good... fearing perhaps one... there is a reason.

The Haji was a person from the Western Regions. He arrived in the capital years ago, traveled to this place, and passed away in Beishao... as... a pair of gauze lanterns led the way, all...

His heart was upright and he was strict with the doctrines. Whatever he did, there was always a response. I carefully record the precious signs of his manifestation...

The sage came to the capital in the previous dynasty with three or four others. They traveled to different places. Now, outside Fucheng Gate, there is a precious... and outside the gate, there is also a tomb from years ago.

The emperor was captured and taken to the north.

A saint once appeared in a dream and said on a certain date he would return to the dynasty. Unexpectedly, it came true on that day. This shows the saint's divine response.

Years ago, the saint visited Beishao Village. Less than a mile northwest of the village, there was a mosque (libaisi). The saint stayed there, close to Mang Mountain, where there were often large...

Pythons would appear and hurt people. After our saint stayed here and recited the holy scripture, the pythons fled and disappeared. To this day, even insects do not hurt people. This is where the saint showed his holiness.

In the 29th year of the Jiajing reign, during the Gengxu Incident, enemies gathered here. Over a thousand local men and women wanted to die inside the Hui Muslims' cemetery. I saw a...

A great saint wearing a turban came riding a white camel, and the enemies fled far away. All the people in the area were safe. Only then did they know the saint had appeared to save them from suffering.

Years ago, soldiers and civilians often gathered firewood near the saint's tomb. Many people saw a white camel eating grass there. This was also the saint showing his holiness...

Written on an auspicious day in the first month of autumn in the 46th year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty.

Zhang Dajin, Deputy General of the Divine Engine Battalion and Assistant Commissioner of the Chief Military Commission, along with his son Zhang Fu'an, Commander of the Divine Pivot Battalion.

Zhang Funing, a Confucian student from Changping Prefecture, Shuntian Prefecture.

Zhang FuX, a captain under the Changping Circuit.

Back side:



People of the X generation have not... seized the matter and cannot explain it clearly, so the words of the sages and worthies will X... no...

X comes out appropriately... the lesson is already very... the prayer is very effective, but... must be sincere... perform ritual washing (wudu)... first inside...

...say Huaxiuha once, Gulu huwanla three times, Salabite once, keep the heart very... the prayer is clear and everything will be answered...

X sins, sincere and X, there will be no response.

X its name Ali, passed down a method of divination to the world, but only those who follow the Hui Muslim faith... regardless of man or woman... with sincerity before Allah.

X all matters of good or bad luck before doing them, use the right hand to grab a large handful of stones into a X... at the end... this is the good or bad luck of the stars.

If the person themselves cannot recite X, they must be sincere and ask someone nearby to recite it for them, which is also acceptable.

If you divine one stone, it is the Venus star, which governs planning... easy to succeed... progress is satisfying.

If you divine two stones, it is the Mars star, which governs... not... people's hearts... turn...

If you divine three stones, it is the Ketu star, which governs the matter you are planning, X thinking, but... must...

If you divine four stones, it is the Saturn star, which governs the matter you are planning, it will not succeed.

If you divine five stones, it is the Jupiter star, which governs the matter you are planning, peace... hope for quick success...

If you draw the sixth sign, it is the Moon Star, which is what Allah hopes for... it is satisfactory...

If you draw the seventh sign, it is the Mercury Star, which means victory over others... the hope will be fulfilled quickly...

If you draw the eighth sign, it is the Sun Star, which means planning... Allah will renew your original intention XX.

Right Vice-General of the Divine Engine Division, Commander of the Front Military Commission...

3. The 47th year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty, stele record of the loyal and righteous sages.





When sages live in the world, their birth has a source and their passing has a purpose. When they are alive, they are respected.

Xian Di Wei.

The king comes to the next world to uplift customs and provide support.

The holy religion is immortal, revering the commandments and warning people forever. When they pass away,

their heroic spirits shine brightly. Though dead, they still live. They trigger responses, like a sound reaching a drum or a shadow following a form. Oh... nothing like Beishao.

The spiritual responses of the sages.

The sage's surname is Bo, and his name is Haji. He started his career in the Western Regions and came here out of admiration for righteousness.

Towards me.

The founding emperor praised his military strategy and offered him an official position, but he refused it.

An imperial decree ordered the building of a mosque for him to live in. He accumulated merit and performed good deeds, connecting the ancient to the present. People from far away were happy and those nearby came to visit. He spread the faith widely...

The holy faith had declined but was revived, and the halal way had been cut off but was continued. On the day he passed away, people from all walks of life mourned him. They chose a good burial site to the left of Yingping for Ma Dake.

Strangely, even children saw his appearance as if he were still walking around the area. The camel he rode also did not die and was buried beside his grave. In the Gengxu year of the Jiajing reign, the invaders entered the Gubeikou pass and reached the outskirts.

The enemy scouts had already reached the suburbs of the capital. The civil and military officials were panicked and did not know what to do. A large crowd gathered and suddenly saw...

The sage rode his camel and held a spear to chase the invaders. The invaders were terrified and thought he was a god, so they fled in the night. The local area was saved. The officials were moved and grateful.

The sage drove back the invaders and the whole city celebrated. It was just like Zhang Suiyang who became a spirit to kill the enemy, or Wu Mingfu who turned into bees and scorpions to sting the enemy. Ancient and modern times follow the same path. If it were not for his loyal heart and righteous...

courage and divine power, who could have done this? Therefore...

The sage's reputation grew even greater. People from all directions came and went, and visitors never stopped. He was granted military honors and passed the imperial examinations. From childhood to adulthood, he followed his father's path. Now, in my spare time from work in Changzhen...

I often pay my respects there and feel deeply moved.

I fear that the sage's legacy and noble conduct will be forgotten as time passes. Since the Manchu invaders from Liaodong attacked Liang and Jibei, this is to commemorate...

The traces remain from the past.

To help the future, we carefully carve these words into stone to tell the story so it will not be forgotten.

An auspicious day in the ninth lunar month of the year of Jiwei during the Wanli reign of the Great Ming Dynasty.

Imperial envoy and commander of the Right Army Battalion under the Changping Garrison, Guerrilla General (Regional Commander) Yang Yingrui, led his son.

Military graduate and vanguard squad leader of the Second Battalion of the Firearms Division, Yang Rusong.

Military graduate and vanguard squad leader of the Second Battalion of the Divine Engine Division, Yang Rubai.

Student Yang RuX.

Note: Yang Yingrui was a Hui Muslim general from Niujie in Beijing who was very devoted to his faith. The Qing Dynasty Niujie local gazetteer, Gangzhi, records: Yang Xiangyu, courtesy name Yingrui, was a hereditary commander during the Ming Dynasty who was promoted to Assistant Commissioner-in-Chief of the Rear Chief Military Commission for his repeated merits. He was sent to garrison Datong and held the seal of the General Who Guards the North. He had a beautiful beard, was skilled in riding and archery, and was well-versed in Islamic teachings. He wrote a book called Essential Records of the True Religion (Zhengjiao Yaoce) which circulated widely.

Yang Yingrui was first in charge of patrolling the southwest of the capital. Later, he was promoted to garrison commander of Zhangjiawan, then Guerrilla General of the Right Army of Changping, and finally Commander-in-Chief of the Xuanfu Garrison. He erected the stone tablet at the tomb of Bo Haji while he was stationed in Changping. The 1613 stone tablet at Niujie Mosque, titled 'Record of the Imperial Gifted Mosque,' mentions Yang Yingrui, the Vice Commander of the Capital's Southwest Patrol. The 'Veritable Records of the Ming Shenzong' state that in September 1617, Yang Yingrui, the garrison commander of Zhangjiawan, was promoted to guerrilla general of the Changping Right Army Camp. The 'Veritable Records of the Ming Xizong' record that in 1624, Yang Yingrui became a general and commander-in-chief stationed in Xuanfu.

4. Tablet record of the renovation of the sages in the sixth year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty.





Tablet record of the renovation of the sages.

During my free time, I met Mr. Li Chenxuan, who visited me and asked, 'Do you know why I have come?' I replied, 'I do not.' Mr. Li then stepped forward to donate.

He said, 'Outside the east gate of Changping Prefecture, there is a plot of land of about 40 mu used for burning, which was once...'

The tomb of the sage and ancestor named Baha Zhi, which was originally...

Granted by our Emperor Taizu Gao because of his contribution in offering military strategies. A mosque was built there with magnificent halls and lush pine and bamboo trees. People recited the holy scripture day and night and performed namaz facing west, partly to pray for the Emperor's boundless longevity.

Because of the passage of time, the site collapsed and was damaged, and the inscriptions became too faded to be passed down. This year, we received...

The former commander-in-chief of the Xuan-Da region, Ma Nanxi.

He was determined to re-erect the tablet and asked me to write a few words to be carved on it. I have always enjoyed talking about the path of virtue.

Doing good without seeking praise for one's virtue is what the Book of Changes describes.

Doing good brings a hundred blessings, and a family that accumulates goodness will have extra joy; this is exactly what that means.

From now on, setting up this text on a stone tablet is not only to honor this.

It also ensures that one aspect of the Left Commander-in-Chief's love for goodness is not forgotten.

The virtuous predecessors established this for all generations, and I have written this because Mr. Li requested it.

He was very sincere, so I reluctantly used simple language to carve it onto the stone to record the month.

An auspicious day in the summer of the Wuyin year, the sixth year of the Wanli reign.

Presented Scholar, Grand Master of Palace Accord, Director of the Zhejiang Bureau of the Ministry of Revenue.

Respectfully written by Zhou Wenyuan of Yanshan.

Ma Fang, Left Commander-in-Chief in charge of the Front Military Commission.

Note: Ma Fang was a legendary general in the mid-Ming Dynasty. His biography in the History of Ming is included in high school extracurricular literature, and The Siege of Ma Fang is a classic play in Beijing opera, Henan opera, Sichuan opera, Han opera, Xiang opera, Yunnan opera, and Qinqiang.

Ma Fang, courtesy name Dexin, was from Weizhou (modern-day Yuxian, Hebei). He was captured by the Mongols at age ten, later escaped back to Datong to join the army, and then achieved countless military victories. In 1550, the 29th year of the Jiajing reign, the Mongol leader Altan Khan launched the Gengxu Incident. The Ming dynasty border troops retreated across the line, but Ma Fang won a victory and killed an enemy commander. The Ming army's combat effectiveness improved steadily after Ma Fang reorganized it. He defeated Altan Khan many times until the khan was finally pacified. The History of Ming praises him, saying, 'Fang rose from the ranks and became a great commander in just over ten years... He fought over a hundred battles, suffered dozens of wounds, and never failed to win a great victory even when outnumbered.' He captured dozens of tribal leaders and killed countless enemies. His fame shook the borderlands, and he was the top general of his time.

Ma Fang once oversaw the renovation of the Datong mosque. According to the 1622 (the second year of the Tianqi reign) stele record for the renovation of the mosque in Datong, 'General Ma Lanxi and General Ma Xiquan dug a square pond, built a stone bridge, and renovated the mosque once.' Lanxi was Ma Fang's courtesy name.

5. Tombstone of the local sage Bo Hazhi from the 53rd year of the Kangxi reign.





Tombstone of the local sage Bo Hazhi.

He was a man from the Western Regions who came to the imperial court in the early Hongwu reign of the Ming dynasty to offer advice. He was offered an official position but refused, asking instead to travel and teach in the village, which was granted. He lived with strict dignity and never acted carelessly.

He rode a white camel wherever he went. He was not petty, but he was strict about religious discipline and corrected those who broke the rules. People observed his pure conduct and encouraged each other to improve.

Because of this, the customs of our village changed, and our faith flourished. The Ming Emperor Taizu praised his virtue and treated him with great respect. He later returned to Changping and died of old age.

My fellow villagers buried him on the sunny side of Beishao, and they also buried his white camel next to his grave. During the Zhengtong, Jiajing, and Wanli eras, many miracles were recorded here.

Earlier stone inscriptions from the middle of the Wanli era were too crude to be worth recording.

In our current dynasty, my fellow villagers still admire his noble character and treat him as a role model, just as they did in the past.

In the 35th year of the current Emperor's reign, I returned from a northern military campaign and passed through Beishao. I donated money to repair the public tomb. At that time, someone told me about his great virtues and asked me to write a few words, but I did not finish it.

Seventeen years have passed since then.

To celebrate the Emperor's 60th birthday, my second son, Longxiang, received a special appointment.

He was appointed as my middle army commander and traveled with me.

On our way back from offering birthday blessings, we passed through Beishao again. We repaired the walls and marked the boundaries of the tomb. The tomb gate and the spirit path look brand new. Alas, he is gone. Although everyone in my village talks about his virtue, no one has written it down. I admire this sage and envy how he guided others through his own actions, so I have organized his life story.

I have added an inscription to pass his story on to future generations.

The inscription says:

The inscription says:

He came to offer advice and died while spreading the faith. Those influenced by his spirit buried him here. For millions of years, people will look up to him like a high mountain.

Written by Ma Jinliang, the Regional Commander (zongbingguan) of Gubeikou and other areas, and Assistant Commissioner-in-Chief (dudu tongzhi).

Time:

Erected on a day in the fifth month of the 53rd year of the Kangxi reign.

Note: Ma Jinliang was a famous Hui Muslim military officer in the early Qing Dynasty. He served as a guerrilla general (youji) of the Shandan Battalion in 1690, a colonel (canjiang) of the Gansu Provincial Command in 1693, and became the Regional Commander (zongbingguan) of the Zhili region in 1695, stationed at Gubeikou. People called him 'Hui Muslim General Ma'. In 1696, Ma Jinliang followed Emperor Kangxi to campaign against Galdan. He performed outstanding military service and was awarded the title 'Valiant General' (xiaoyong jiangjun). On his way back, he passed through Changping and donated money to renovate the tomb of Bo Hazhi. In 1713, Ma Jinliang passed by the tomb of Bo Hazhi again and 'repaired the walls, defined the boundaries, and restored the tomb gate and the sacred path.' Afterward, he erected this stone tablet.

6. The 1602 tombstone protecting the tomb of Bo Hazhi from the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty.

(No longer exists, but the National Library has a rubbing of it.)

XX because of X Beishao.

Beside the tomb of the sage, mixed with other graves, the reason for this is X.

The mosque was granted by the emperor, and the Han people did not change it.

The emperor bestowed his grace and asked the Han people about it. The sounds of the past are heard by the honest and patient, and then Mr. Yang, the leader, gathered everyone.

Mr. Yang, whose given name was Hong, took the lead in this righteous cause. He donated money to buy back the land where his ancestors were buried, stopped the Han people from burying others there, and prioritized the proper Islamic rites.

He cleared the main path to reach the gate, built walls all around for protection, and erected a three-room prayer hall for reciting the Quran and performing rituals.

The boundaries are vast, and he built structures nearby to guard the land forever.

The elders felt this in their hearts.

The Prophet's mercy is boundless, and our longing to remember him grows more sincere. Our determination to follow his path strengthens, and many people now walk this road.

When people see this place, they are moved. They talk to each other in surprise about how the site has changed from its former glory to its new appearance today.

The renovation is known throughout the country, and the opening is known at home and abroad. The credit for this success belongs to the leadership of Mr. Yang and the community.

Their collective effort made it happen.

The character of the elders.

The great Prophet's teachings are entrusted to us.

The Lord of all things... not by human power... those who reach this place... shaping the tomb to honor the memory, showing greatness, and reflecting on the return to the root of all existence.

In this land, there is life and advice... do not forget.

The Lord, remembering the distant ancestors and being careful with the end, every detail has its purpose.

The Lord, as well as the teaching of the lessons, the strict observance of fasting (sawm), the striving in prayer (namaz)... the glorious true words of faith.

The submission to Him can establish the pillars of the faith. Therefore, the predecessors said... truly having the way, how profound are their words! Listening to the empty valley...

Passing on the sound, it is hard to know what kind of person Mr. Yang was. His alias was Jiquan... he was an outstanding leader, and one can imagine his great righteousness and courage.

Is it not so? The Analects say: to see what is right and not do it is a lack of courage. The Book of Changes says... if one speaks for the benefit of others, then in the midst of promoting righteousness and courage, one also relies on...

Longxi... near the locust trees, sharing the labor, Hao... Houquan, Chen Chenquan... their deeds at Lubin Pavilion, Kang Jingyu praised their success, and thus...

The sages have glory, establishing a foundation that lasts forever. Using the advice stone to leave a mark that will not wear away for millions of years, these simple words are recorded to mark the time.

Erected on an auspicious day in the middle of the second month of autumn in the Renyin year, the 30th year of the Wanli reign.

Written by Lin Qicai, a presented scholar (jinshi), serving as a grand master for palace attendance and director of the Bureau of Ceremonies in the Ministry of Rites.

Note: Lin Qicai was a cousin of the great Ming dynasty thinker Li Zhi. He was from Jinjiang, Fujian, and passed the imperial examination (jinshi) in the 38th year of the Jiajing reign (1559). According to the Fengchi Lin Family Genealogy, Lin Qicai's second-generation ancestor Lin Nu married a Semu woman and followed her faith, receiving initiation into the teachings of the Qingjing Mosque. In 1580, the eighth year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty, Lin Qicai wrote the Stele Record for the Reconstruction of the Imperial-commissioned Faming Mosque, located inside Andingmen in Beijing. He signed it as Lin Qicai, a presented scholar (jinshi) and former director of the Ministry of Revenue, serving as an official in the Imperial Seal Office. According to the History of Ming, the official position of director of the Imperial Seal Office was a rank 6b role responsible for managing imperial seals, tallies, and stamps, and verifying their proper use.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: Bohaji Tomb — Beijing Muslim History and Sufi Memory is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Last Saturday, I visited the tomb of the Western Regions sage Burhanuddin (Bohezhi) in Heying, Changping, Beijing. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Muslim History, Sufi Shrines, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Last Saturday, I visited the tomb of the Western Regions sage Burhanuddin (Bohezhi) in Heying, Changping, Beijing. Locals also call it the Sheikh Baba (Shaihai Baba) tomb. We were warmly welcomed by Uncle Zhang, whose family has guarded the tomb for generations.

The records say Sheikh Baba came from Medina (Modena) to preach in China during the early years of the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty. He eventually passed away in Heying, Changping, and is deeply respected by Hui Muslims. A 1713 (the 52nd year of the Kangxi reign) stele inside the cemetery says, 'He was a man from the Western Regions who came to the imperial court in the early Ming Dynasty to offer advice, but he refused the official title offered to him.' He asked to travel and teach the faith, and the emperor agreed. He lived with strict discipline and walked with purpose. He rode a white camel, and wherever he went, he did not fuss over minor details but focused on moral conduct. Those who had lost their way or acted improperly saw his pure character and began to correct themselves, striving to improve. Because of this, the customs of our village changed, and our faith flourished. The Ming Emperor Taizu admired his virtue and treated him with great respect. Later, he returned to Changping and died of old age. Our villagers buried him on the sunny side of Beishao, and the white camel he rode was buried beside his tomb.

At the same time, locals pass down legends of Burhanuddin ridding the people of evil, such as the story of him slaying a giant python on Mangshan Mountain. The Qing Dynasty's 'Changping Prefecture Gazetteer' (Kangxi edition), Volume 26, section on 'Hui Muslim Miracles,' records: 'A man from Medina with spiritual power died and was buried in Hejiaying, east of the prefecture, where he often showed signs of his holiness.' During the chaos of the rebel invasion, the countryside was trampled, but the grass on this tomb remained untouched. The villagers who hid there were all kept safe and sound. At the time, people saw a Hui Muslim dressed in white sitting at the tomb gate, and the soldiers never reached it. No one understood why. Was Muhammad born with divine power, and is this his descendant?

According to a stone tablet record from 1909 (the first year of the Xuantong reign), it has long been a tradition for imperial officials and Hui Muslims to visit the tomb for prayers every year on the 24th day of the third lunar month. From the Ming dynasty until today, local Hui Muslims and those from surrounding areas have come to visit the tomb of Sheikh Baba (Shaihai Baba) on the 24th day of the third lunar month without fail.



The tomb of Sheikh Baba and the white camel he rode. During the renovation in the 1990s, due to limited awareness of cultural relics at the time, the original stone slabs were replaced with cement-covered bricks. Now, only a few of the original stone slabs remain.







Five stone tablets from the Ming and Qing dynasties are currently preserved in front of the tomb.



The Tomb Tablet of Bo Ha Zhi, written by Zhou Wenyuan in 1578 (the sixth year of the Wanli reign), which also features an Arabic inscription at the top.







A stone tablet from 1618 (the 46th year of the Ming Wanli reign), inscribed by Zhang Dajin, who served as the Deputy General of the Divine Engine Division and Assistant Commissioner of the Chief Military Commission. Uncle Zhang said that the descendants of the person who wrote the tablet now live in Linxia. Because it is recorded in their family genealogy, they previously came here specifically to make a rubbing of this stone tablet.







The most unique thing about this stone tablet is that the back records how the ancestors of the Hui Muslims used astrology for divination. According to Uncle Zhang, they would recite the Fatiha and then throw stones to perform the divination. Although the inscription is damaged, you can still see parts that say, 'Ali passed down a method of divination to the world, but those who follow the Hui religion... before doing anything, check if it is auspicious... grab a handful of stones with your right hand... this is the astrology of good fortune...' It then explains the results based on the number of stones: 'If you get four stones, it is ruled by Saturn, and what you plan will not succeed... If you get six stones, it is ruled by the Moon, and what you hope for will succeed... If you get seven stones, it is ruled by Mercury, and you will win over others...'





The 'Stele of Loyalty of the Worthy' (Xianxian Zhongyi Bei) was written and titled by Yang Yingduan in 1619 (the 47th year of the Wanli reign).







The 'Tombstone of Bo Haji' (Bo Haji Mubei) was written by Ma Jinliang in 1713 (the 52nd year of the Kangxi reign). Ma Jinliang was a famous Hui Muslim military officer in the early Qing Dynasty. When he wrote the stele, he was the Regional Commander (Zongbing Guan) and Assistant Commissioner-in-Chief (Dudu Tongzhi) stationed at Gubeikou, known to people as 'Hui Muslim General Ma'. In 1696 (the 35th year of the Kangxi reign), Ma Jinliang followed the Kangxi Emperor to fight Galdan. He performed with great merit and was awarded the title 'Valiant General' (Xiaoyong Jiangjun). On his way back, he passed through Changping and donated money to renovate the tomb of Bo Haji. In 1713 (the 52nd year of the Kangxi reign), Ma Jinliang passed by the tomb of Bo Haji again and 'repaired the walls, marked the boundaries, and fixed the tomb gate and the spirit path.' Afterward, he erected this stone tablet.







There were once 85 ancient cypress trees planted in the early Ming Dynasty inside the Bo Haji tomb. Later, 17 died, and 68 remain today. It is the best-preserved site of Ming Dynasty ancient trees in Changping District, outside of the Ming Tombs.









Inside the cemetery, there is a 'Notice Tablet for the Protection of Bo Haji's Tomb' (Baohu Bo Haji Mu Gaoshi Bei) erected in 1909 (the first year of the Xuantong reign). It records the story of how Hui Muslims protected these ancient trees over 110 years ago, which was a major case of deforestation and forest protection in Changping at the end of the Qing Dynasty. In the final years of the Guangxu reign, some people in Heying tried to cut down ancient trees to sell for public funds because their school budget was short. Local Hui Muslims reported them to the Changping Prefecture. After a trial, the Hui Muslims won the case, and it was finally ruled that no one could suggest cutting down the pine and cypress trees in front of the sheikh's tomb, or they would face investigation.







The back of the Xuantong stele records how Hui Muslims gave charity (nieti) to renovate the cemetery. The inscription says they reorganized the old cemetery, built a stele pavilion, repaired the surrounding walls, and rebuilt the second gate. Unfortunately, the stele pavilion, the walls, and the second gate are all gone now, leaving only the stone stele. Most of the donors on the stele were Hui Muslim officials ranging from the third to the seventh rank, including imperial physicians from the Imperial Hospital, cavalry and infantry instructors, and battalion commanders (qianzhong). There were also imams (ahong), religious leaders (zhangjiao), village elders, and community members from places like Xiguanshi, Gaoliying, Pingxifu, Shucun, Anheqiao, Haidian, Changying, Manziying, Yujiawu, Madian, and Shahe. The managers were the imam (imamu), ahong, and three religious leaders from the Shahe Town mosque.





As for other tombs of virtuous predecessors in the cemetery, we only know one is called the White Imam (Bai Imamu), and another, according to Uncle Zhang, belongs to an ahong's family. The names of the others are lost. Uncle Zhang said that in the past, you had to reach a certain rank to be buried in the Sheikh Baba cemetery.











On the south side of the Bo Haji cemetery is the Heying mosque, which Uncle Zhang's family built in the 1930s. Only the north building of the old structure remains. You can see the middle of the walls are built with stones that Uncle Zhang's family hauled back from the mountains years ago. The ahong of the Heying mosque was forced to leave after the 1960s. After that, the mosque was mainly used by Hui Muslims from other places to visit graves and by local Hui Muslims for funerals (maiti). When policies were implemented in the 1980s, a mistake meant the mosque was not included in the cultural relic protection area for the Bo Haji tomb. Because of this, the nearly century-old mosque still does not have official cultural relic status. Uncle Zhang's family is currently using funds collected through community charity (nieti) to slowly save up, and they have started planning repairs for the old building.

















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Summary: Halal Food Guide: Tehran Street Food — Iranian Snacks, Markets and Everyday Eats is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: I went to Tehran during the 2019 Mid-Autumn Festival to eat and explore. I am sharing some of the things I ate here. The account keeps its focus on Tehran Street Food, Iran Travel, Halal Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

I went to Tehran during the 2019 Mid-Autumn Festival to eat and explore. I am sharing some of the things I ate here.

1. Persian tomato and egg stir-fry with Barbari flatbread (Barbari nan).

For breakfast on my first day in Tehran, I had Persian tomato and egg stir-fry (Persian Omelette), which is a signature Iranian breakfast. The cooking order for Persian tomato and egg stir-fry is the opposite of the Chinese version; you cook the tomatoes first, then add the eggs. Unlike our rice dishes, this Persian tomato and egg stir-fry must be eaten with flatbread. The shop I visited served it with Barbari flatbread.

Barbari literally translates to barbarian. It was originally what Persians called the Hazara people living in the Khorasan region. Hazara people from Khorasan first brought Barbari flatbread to Tehran, and it became popular during the Qajar dynasty (1796-1925). After that, the Hazara people were no longer called Barbari, but the name of the Barbari flatbread stayed.

The shop I went to is called Golha 2 Hookah Bar. You can find it on Google Maps by searching for سفره خانه گلها 2. Because they only sell this one combination, you do not need to speak the language to order.













2. Cinnamon-spiced sheep head and trotter soup (Khalle Pache) with Sangak flatbread (Sangak nan).

For breakfast on my second day in Tehran, I had cinnamon-spiced sheep head and trotter soup (Khalle Pache) served with Sangak flatbread. Sangak means small pebbles, and the earliest records of it come from the 11th-century Persian army. Persian soldiers back then supposedly carried pebbles with them. When they set up camp, they gathered the pebbles together to bake flatbread (naan), which is why Sangak flatbread has little pits all over it.

Sheep head soup is eaten more often in the autumn and winter. It usually comes with two pieces of flatbread; you soak the first one in the soup and eat the second one with the lamb. Besides sheep head and sheep trotters, the shop also sells sheep brain, but it is not part of the standard order, so you do not have to order it if you do not like it.

The shop I visited is called Lux Talaee Tabakhi, and it is a well-known spot in the old city of Tehran that specializes in sheep head and sheep trotter soup.















3. Falafel sandwich

My accommodation in the old city of Tehran was south of Imam Khomeini Square, where there is a food street. I ate many snacks there. On the morning of my third day in Tehran, I ate a Falafel sandwich on the food street. It ranks alongside Iranian pizza as one of the two major street foods in Tehran.

Falafel is a common Middle Eastern fried chickpea ball, served inside a baguette with vegetable salad and Persian pickles (torshi). Torshi means sour in the Persian language. The most popular Falafel sandwich shops let you add your own salad and pickles, and they often have long lines. The one I ate had a simpler setup.









4. Samosa

Snacks called samosa are found from Northeast Africa to Western China, and they are made differently everywhere. Common versions include Indian curry puffs and baked buns (kaobaos) from Xinjiang, Central Asia. The word samosa actually comes from the Persian word sanbosag. As early as the 9th century, the Persian poet Ishaq al-Mawsili wrote poems praising the samosa. After the 10th century, the samosa began appearing in Arabic cookbooks and spread across Africa and Asia along with Muslims. The samosa remained popular in Iran until the 16th century, but later it was only kept in certain regions.

Samosas on the streets of Tehran are mostly fried triangles with potato filling, similar to the Indian version. I bought this kind at a small shop across from the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) bazaar, and I also bought some delicious bread there.











I also ate another type of baked samosa on the food street south of Imam Khomeini Square, which also had a potato filling. The name of this restaurant is Sandwich Khorasan, so I guess this style might come from the Khorasan region in northeastern Iran.









5. Tripe soup (sirabi)

I had tripe soup (sirabi) with flatbread (sangak) at a small street shop next to the carpet bazaar in Tehran. The soup was very fresh and tasty, and the tripe was very chewy.









6. Caspian white fish of the Gilaki people

I ate at Khoshbin, a fried fish restaurant run by Gilaki people from northern Iran, while in Tehran. The Gilaki people mainly live in Gilan Province on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, and the Gilaki language they use belongs to the Western Iranian branch. Molecular anthropology shows that the Y-chromosome of the Gilaki people is very close to that of South Caucasian people, but their mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) is very close to that of Iranians. We can guess that the ancestors of the Gilaki people likely came from the South Caucasus region, then migrated to the southern shore of the Caspian Sea and mixed with the Iranians.

The business hours for Khoshbin on Google Maps are wrong. They are actually only open for lunch between 12:00 PM and 4:00 PM, and it is very popular, so you have to wait in line. Luckily, they have an English menu, so I was able to order my food without any trouble.

Fried fish is an important part of Gilaki cuisine. I tried the Caspian white fish (Caspian kutum), which is a type of carp. For side dishes, I ordered white fish roe (Kuli), fava beans, and walnuts, and I also had cucumber yogurt (Maast-o Khiar). They also have some special Gilaki side dishes I want to try next time, like a mashed dip made of eggplant, pumpkin, garlic, tomatoes, and eggs called Mirza Ghasemi, and green olives marinated in pomegranate molasses, walnuts, and herbs called Zeytoun Parvardeh.













7. Street drinks

There are many drink shops on the streets of Tehran. First, there are all kinds of fresh juices; I drank pomegranate juice, honeydew melon juice, and carrot juice. The honeydew melon and carrot juices were super delicious, but the pomegranate juice was so sour it made me question everything. I still like the pomegranate juice from Xinjiang the best.













Another drink you don't see often in other countries is called Khakshir, which is very common in Iran during the summer to beat the heat and quench your thirst. Khakshir is the seed of a plant called flixweed (bonianghao) in Chinese. Flixweed is also known as garlic mustard, mimihao, or maihao. It grows all over China except in the south. It can be used to make oil or as medicine. Both traditional Iranian medicine and traditional Chinese medicine use it to help with urination and reduce swelling.







8. Shemroon Kabab restaurant

I ate at a kebab shop called Shemroon Kabab in Tajrish Square in northern Tehran. I ordered lamb chops with flatbread (nan) and spinach yogurt (Spinach Burani) as an appetizer. Their portions are huge and satisfying, and the meat is very tender and delicious.



















9. Chicken kebab

I had chicken kebab at the Tajrish Bazaar in northern Tehran. Here, they simmer the kebabs in a thick tomato sauce after grilling them, which makes them very fragrant.











10. Flatbread (nan)

In the early morning in Tehran, any freshly baked flatbread is incredibly delicious. Also, as a word origin, nan (نان) in Persian can refer to any kind of flatbread, not just those baked in a traditional clay oven.





11. Cornelian cherry (zhuyu) and mulberry

I ate cornelian cherry and mulberry at the Tajrish Bazaar in northern Tehran. The classic way to eat them is to sprinkle them with salt. If you squeeze a mulberry with your hand, the juice comes right out. It is as juicy as pomegranate juice from Xinjiang, but it is still too sour.











12. Faloodeh

I ate Faloodeh on the food street south of Imam Khomeini Square in Tehran. It is a cold rice noodle dessert with sugar syrup, rose water, and lemon juice.







13. Cucumber yogurt (Maast-o Khiar)

I bought cucumber yogurt (Maast-o Khiar) at the Friday Bazaar in Tehran, and it came with raisins and walnuts.









14. Saffron ice cream

I ate saffron ice cream near Tajrish Square in northern Tehran. It was topped with crushed pistachios and chunks of cream, which is very typical of Iran.





15. Baklava dessert with tea

I had tea and dessert at a shop called Takseen baghlava near the Mirdamad metro station in northern Tehran. Baklava originated in the Ottoman imperial court and later became popular across the Middle East and the Caucasus. The Persian version of baklava is special because it uses rose syrup and crushed pistachios. The dessert I ate was shaped like sugar threads.

The two-layer Iranian tea stove is called a samovar, which arrived from Russia in the 19th century. The small teapot on top is for brewing tea, the large pot in the middle is for boiling water, and the bottom is the heat source. Traditionally it used coal or charcoal, but now it uses electricity, gas, or natural gas.













16. Drinking tea

Haj Ali Darvish is a century-old, famous tea house in the Grand Bazaar of Tehran. The tea house opened in 1918 and was taken over by Haj Ali Mabhutyan in 1962. The current owner is his son, Haj Kazem Mabhutyan.

Mr. Kazem works hard to share his shop on Instagram, which has helped more foreign tourists find his small place. I am one of them, and the old gentleman even took my photo and posted it on Instagram. Friends who use Instagram might have a chance to see me there. The account is haj_ali_darvish_tea_house.





I also drank some street-side fig tea on the food street south of Imam Khomeini Square. Iranians mainly have two ways of adding sugar to their tea. One way is to hold a sugar cube in your mouth and lick it while you drink the tea. The other way is to use a lollipop-style sugar stick called nabat chubi to stir it. This rock candy originated in Isfahan over a thousand years ago. Later, people invented a way to grow crystals by dipping small twigs into a sugar solution, and this method spread across Eurasia.











17. Moslem Restaurant

Moslem Restaurant is a very famous spot in the Tehran Grand Bazaar. They specialize in Iranian rice cake (Tahchin) made with rice, yogurt, saffron, and eggs (shown in the top right of photo 4). I bought a bowl of sour cream and spinach meat stew porridge (Aush) at the takeout window on the first floor, and it tasted great.









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Summary: Tianjin Northwest Corner — Muslim Food and Street Changes is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In January and February 2016, Xiao Lin took me to explore the food in the Northwest Corner of Tianjin twice. The account keeps its focus on Tianjin Halal Food, Northwest Corner, Muslim Streets while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In January and February 2016, Xiao Lin took me to explore the food in the Northwest Corner of Tianjin twice. Those two trips to the Northwest Corner made me fall in love with the place. Over the next five years, from 2016 to 2021, I visited the Northwest Corner 11 more times to eat and explore. These 13 trips allowed me to document some of the changes in the area, including the now-vanished Northwest Corner night market, the meat porridge (rouzhou) and fried cakes (zhagao) at the entrance of the South Mosque, and various shops that disappeared due to urban renewal. I will now share my 13 trips to the Northwest Corner with you.

The History of the Northwest Corner

First, let me briefly introduce the history of the Northwest Corner in Tianjin. The Northwest Corner was once the largest Hui Muslim community in Tianjin. Before the demolition, it was home to 26,000 Hui Muslims, accounting for one-fifth of the Hui population in Tianjin at that time.

After Tianjin Wei was fortified in 1404, Hui Muslims continuously moved to the area via the Grand Canal from places like Anhui, Jiangsu, and Hebei. Some chose to settle in the Northwest Corner of the old city near the bustling Beidaguan canal transport hub, and they built the Northwest Corner Great Mosque (Qingzhen Dasi) around 1644.

With the Great Mosque at its center, the Northwest Corner was filled with halal shops before 1995. It also had 20 ethnic kindergartens, 7 ethnic primary schools, 2 ethnic middle schools, and 2 ethnic hospitals. In 1985, the Wenchang Palace Ethnic Food Street was built, and in 1988, it was renovated into the Dahuoxiang Ethnic Farmers' Market.

Demolition began in the mid-1990s, and the Hui Muslims of the Northwest Corner gradually scattered. Some people opened shops elsewhere and used the "Northwest Corner" name to show their roots.

Between 2004 and 2007, demolition began east of Dafeng Road, clearing away all buildings outside the Great Mosque (Qingzhen Dasi), the Ethnic Culture Palace, and the Islamic Association. The Northwest Corner remains an important community for Hui Muslims in Tianjin today, centered around the South Mosque (Qingzhen Nansi), which is home to many delicious Hui Muslim snacks.

In 1900, three French expeditionary captains named Present, Carmel, and Discher used a reconnaissance hot air balloon to photograph the area inside and outside the West Gate of Tianjin, with the Northwest Corner visible in the top right.



The Northwest Corner in 1983.



Mosque.

The Great Mosque of Tianjin in the Northwest Corner was reportedly built in 1644 (the first year of the Shunzhi reign of the Qing Dynasty) and was not very large at first. It was expanded twice, in 1679 (the eighteenth year of the Kangxi reign) and 1801 (the sixth year of the Jiaqing reign), to reach its current size. A major structural renovation was carried out between 2009 and 2011. I will post a separate article later featuring photos of Tianjin mosques.







The South Mosque in the Northwest Corner was first built in 1819 (the twenty-fourth year of the Jiaqing reign) and was completed in 1845 (the twenty-fifth year of the Daoguang reign). It was closed after 1958 and turned into a school and a cardboard box factory after 1961. In 1976, the main prayer hall was turned into a factory workshop and was destroyed by a fire caused by heating equipment; it was rebuilt over 12 years starting in 1982. In 2001, the main hall roof was renovated, replacing the gray tube tiles with green glazed tiles.





The Northwest Corner West Mosque.







Next to it is the Women's Mosque.





January 2016.

In the Northwest Corner in January 2016, you could see Xiao Li Roasted Chicken (Xiao Li Shaoji) right outside the subway station, where there was always a long line.



Walking south along West Horse Road (Xi Ma Lu), this area used to be the west city wall of Tianjin.



Homemade candies and preserved fruits from Hui Muslim locals.





Turn into the Hui Muslim residential area on Huanqing West Alley.







Sticky bean buns (niandoubao) from Xiao Dong Sticky Foods.





The Ethnic Building (Minzu Lou) in the Northwest Corner Hui Muslim residential area.



Wen's Rice Cake (Wenji Gaogan) at the entrance of the South Mosque, though the area is now cleared out.







Li's Sizzling Rice Dish (Li Ji Guobacai) on the other side of the South Mosque is very popular now, but the stall shed is gone.



Keep heading south, and you will find more and more halal snacks.







The row of shops on the right has been cleared out and turned into a parking lot.



Walk west from Xiguan Beili, and you will reach the halal supermarket.







I bought a yellow cap made in Tianmu Village at the halal supermarket; yellow is the main color for Hui Muslims in Tianjin.





Head back to Xima Road.





For dinner, I ate at Qingfade Restaurant on Xima Road, which is a classic stir-fry spot that represents the Northwest Corner area.













Night view of Xiguan Main Street.











The famous Hailan black beans (hailan wudou) on Xiguan Main Street are still here.





Back at the Northwest Corner subway station, the night market here is gone now.







July 2016.

On a hot summer afternoon on July 9, 2016, my childhood friend and I came to the Northwest Corner again to see how it differs from winter.

To get to the Northwest Corner from Beijing, it is best to take the train to Tianjin West Station, then take the subway one stop south to Northwest Corner Station. Right outside the southwest exit of the subway station is a halal cold drink stand. They have house-made sour plum drink (suanmeitang), homemade lemonade, and shaved ice (xuehualao). My childhood friend and I bought the sour plum drink and lemonade. They were delicious.





We kept walking south along West Horse Road (Xima Lu). The afternoon temperature was high, and there were very few people on the street.



At Ring City Noodle Shop (Huancheng Mianguan), my friend and I each had a bowl of cold noodles with shredded chicken and a plate of tofu with century egg. It was very refreshing. Almost no other halal restaurant in Beijing makes cold noodles better than this one.







We continued walking south. I guess everyone was at home staying out of the heat. Not far ahead was the alley entrance facing the South Mosque (Qingzhen Nansi), where we turned into Huanqing West Alley.









The intersection of Huanqing West Alley and Xiguan North Street is the heart of the Northwest Corner, and it is full of shops. I bought two coarse-grain vegetable dumplings (caimian tuanzi).





We went into Mumin Supermarket and bought a jar of stir-fried shrimp paste. My friend and I first came to Tianjin together ten years ago and specifically came here to buy this paste to eat with steamed buns (mantou). Haha!





Mumin Supermarket has now changed its name to Mumin Supermarket (Mumin Chaoshi, using different characters).





Coming out of Mumin Supermarket, we entered the north-south market on the east side of Xiguan Beili that leads to Xiguan Street. There were very fragrant fried eggplant boxes and lotus root boxes.









We turned onto Xiguan Street. When I came here in winter, the thing that left the deepest impression was the hot black beans (wudou) at the east entrance. So, we went to buy 3 yuan worth of black beans. My friend highly praised them, saying they were truly delicious.







Further east from the black beans is the intersection of Xiguan Street and West Horse Road. On the northwest side of the road, they sell seaweed rice rolls, shaved ice, and milkshakes. I bought a cup of red bean condensed milk shaved ice, which was super refreshing.





August 2016

On August 20, 2016, over a month later, my childhood friend and I returned to Tianjin on a not-so-hot afternoon. We got off the train and took the subway straight to the Northwest Corner (Xibeijiao). We exited the southwest subway entrance and headed right to the cold drink shop we had been looking forward to. We had delicious sour plum drink (suanmeitang) there last time, so this time we tried the snowflake shaved ice (xuehualao).





The snowflake shaved ice felt like red hawthorn shaved ice. Imagine it as snow made of stir-fried red hawthorn (chaohongguo). It was not as sweet as the stir-fried red hawthorn in Beijing, and I really liked it.



We kept walking south along West Horse Road (Ximalu), then turned west at the intersection of the South Mosque (Qingzhen Nansi). Many shops were closed due to the extreme heat when we visited last month, but it was much livelier this time.





We walked south along Huanqing West Alley, turned west at the Muslim supermarket (Mumin Chaoshi), and walked to the end to find Wang Sangu Beef Pie. We could smell the aroma from far away. The kitchen was outdoors. We lined up from south to north. We paid and got a ticket from the man at the south end. Moving north, two women wrapped the pies, one woman handed them out, and two men cooked them. On the west side, others handled the cold dishes and stewed beef brisket. Everything was organized and lively.







My friend and I bought a 17-yuan beef pie and took it inside to eat. The best part was the crust, which was crispy and had a great texture.



We walked around outside and returned to the Northwest Corner in the evening.



The next morning, we went to the Northwest Corner for breakfast. Outside the South Mosque, we ate savory crepe strips (guobacai) and fried dough rolls (juanquan) at Chai's Breakfast. My childhood friend loves the fried dough rolls so much that he bought another one from the owner after finishing the first. The portion of savory crepe strips I had was huge, so I couldn't finish it all.









Sunday was much hotter than Saturday. My friend and I wandered around the Northwest Corner for a while, but the heat became too much, so we took the subway to the train station.





On Sunday, August 27, 2016, at 11:00 a.m., I took the intercity train to Tianjin. After exiting the Northwest Corner subway station, I first went to eat Wang Sangu meat pie (roubing), then bought two yuan worth of black beans (wudou) to snack on while walking. We walked from the Ancient Culture Street back to the Northwest Corner and had a snow-flake ice dessert (xuehualao) at the Guishunzhai shop at the intersection. It had frozen hawthorn and frozen raisins in it, which was very refreshing.







We strolled from Guishunzhai to Uncle Er's Specialty Clay Pot (erdaye tese shaguo) on Jieyuan Road, but it only opens in the evening. Following Xiaolin's suggestion, we ordered lamb knee bone (yanghaba) and vinegar pepper tofu. The lamb knee bone was stewed until very tender and full of flavor. The vinegar pepper tofu tasted like a mix of hot and sour soup and soft tofu, which I really liked.







After finishing the clay pot, a cart selling tea soup (chatang) happened to pull up. I had heard that Tianjin's tea soup is a local specialty, so I bought a bowl of almond tea soup. They were very generous with the toppings, and it reminded me of the tea soup I drank as a child.











January 2017

Whenever anyone mentions the Northwest Corner in Tianjin, my mouth starts watering. On Friday, January 13, 2017, right after work, I set off on another trip to the Northwest Corner of Tianjin.

I took the intercity train from Beijing South Station to Tianjin West Station, then transferred to Line 1 of the subway for one stop to reach the Northwest Corner. The halal night market is right across from the southwest exit of the Northwest Corner subway station. It has all kinds of snacks like fried skewers (zhachuan), braised rice (bafan), and steamed pear cakes (shuligao). My goal this time was the long-awaited Ye's Rice Noodle Rolls (Yeji changfen).

Ye's Rice Noodle Rolls hasn't been in the Northwest Corner for long, but it is the most popular spot at the night market. When I arrived, they had the longest line. I ordered the seafood combo rice noodle rolls with an egg, and the taste was very authentic! It was cold in the winter, so most people got their food to go. Since I came specifically to eat it, I sat in a small pavilion across the street.







Besides rice noodle rolls, they also sell radish beef offal (luobo niuza). The sign says the recipe comes from old Hui Muslims on Guangta Road in Guangzhou. More people buy the rice noodle rolls than the beef offal, but honestly, the beef offal was so, so good. It had that slightly sweet Cantonese flavor that instantly took me back to the Hui Muslim restaurant in Guangzhou. Their sweet and spicy chopped chili sauce is amazing and adds so much flavor. Even someone like me who doesn't usually eat much chili couldn't stop wanting more when I saw their sauce.







The next morning, I continued exploring and eating in the Northwest Corner. A great day starts with a set of savory crepe with fried dough sticks (jianbing guozi)! A unique feature of Tianjin jianbing guozi is that many locals bring their own two eggs for the cook to use. As tourists, we just stick to the cook's eggs.











Next to Lingdangge Middle School is the Mu Family spring roll (juanquan) shop, where people line up all year round. I waited in line to try one, but it felt a bit oily.







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Reposted from the web

Summary: Tianjin Northwest Corner — Muslim Food and Street Changes is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Next, I went to Zhimeizhai, which Xiaolin recommended, to have water caltrop soup (lingjiao tang) and old-style tofu (lao doufu). Their beef sesame flatbread (shaobing) is really good. The account keeps its focus on Tianjin Halal Food, Northwest Corner, Muslim Streets while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.





Next, I went to Zhimeizhai, which Xiaolin recommended, to have water caltrop soup (lingjiao tang) and old-style tofu (lao doufu). Their beef sesame flatbread (shaobing) is really good.













The alleys near Lingdang Pavilion that were waiting to be torn down have now completely disappeared.











I returned to the busy Xiguan Street.





This was my second time at Ye's Rice Noodle Rolls (changfen), and I finally saw the owner. The owner is a girl from Guangzhou. They say she met a guy from Tianjin while traveling in Thailand. They fell in love, got married, and eventually came back to the Northwest Corner to open this rice noodle roll and beef offal shop.





Then I went to eat the shrimp-in-egg (xia che dan) and octopus balls (takoyaki) next door. Shrimp-in-egg is just a shrimp wrapped inside a quail egg, topped with mayonnaise and mustard, and finished with a generous sprinkle of bonito flakes. It is especially delicious!





When I went the night before, the candied hawthorn skewers (tangduier) were sold out, so I made a special trip this time to buy one to eat. I also bought their apricot jam, which is sweet and tastes great.







I met a little kid who really wanted some steamed pear cake (shuligao). The way he looked at it, he was practically diving into the cake. I believe this shop will be a wonderful memory for him when he grows up, just like the Longfu Mosque snack shop is in my heart.



June 2018

In 2018, I suddenly heard that the once-busy Xiguan Beili Market in the Northwest Corner had been cleared out. So, on June 10, I went to see what Xiguan Beili looked like after the clearance.

I had heard many people praise the crispy rice pancake (guobacai) at Zhengweizhai next to the South Mosque (Qingzhen Nansi) in the Northwest Corner. People say it is the best beef-sauce crispy rice pancake nearby. I headed straight to Zhengweizhai early in the morning, but when I arrived at nine o'clock, they had just sold the last bowl. I was very disappointed to miss it.



I strolled back from Zhengweizhai to the gate of the South Mosque and bought two fried cakes (zhagao) at Longyuezhai. You have to eat fried cakes while they are hot! Longyuezhai closed down in September 2018. This might have been the last summer everyone could eat fried cakes at the gate of the South Mosque.







Across from Longyuezhai is Enqingcheng Guobacai. Their shop is very busy, so I waited in line to buy millet porridge (miancha) and crispy rice pancake. Tianjin's millet porridge is thicker than Beijing's. You have to sprinkle two layers of spiced salt on it, and it is very satisfying to eat. Their crispy rice pancake is also very delicious.













Another big breakfast area in the Northwest Corner is on the south side of Jieyuan Road at the Northwest Corner intersection. I bought a Tianjin-style vegetable roll (sujuanquan) here to eat.





This fried dough stick (guoz) stall is right in front of Yangyi Restaurant on Jieyuan Road. People say their egg-filled fried dough stick (jidan guozi) is the best in the Northwest Corner.



A flatbread (dabing) filled with everything!



I really like the steam rising from the steamer; it creates such a great atmosphere.



This shop sells various kinds of rice cakes and donkey roll cakes (lvdagun).



A savory crepe (jianbing guozi) stall is a must-have.



Sesame flatbread (shaobing) and steamed buns (baozi).



Keep walking south from the South Mosque (Nan Si), and you will see that the shops in the northern part of Xiguan Beili are still there.









Keep heading south until you reach Xiguan Street, where most of the shops have been cleared out.





Luckily, my favorite Hailan black beans (wudou) are still there!







Eating hot black beans while walking is so delicious.



Compared to the morning, the night at Northwest Corner (Xibeijiao) is also very interesting. Although the night market at the intersection was cleared out two years ago, some stalls still appear there, like this Old Ma pancake (jianbing) stand.





Two eggs and two fried dough sticks (guozhi) make for a very satisfying meal.







Then I bought some sour plum drink (suanmeitang), which is homemade with rock sugar and plum pulp to help with digestion and boost the appetite.





Summer nights definitely need barbecue.



October 2018.

I went to Tianjin for a food tour on Sunday, October 14, 2018. Ten o'clock is an awkward time for the Northwest Corner. I went straight to the meat porridge (rouzhou) at the entrance of the South Mosque, but it had just sold out, and the millet flour tea (miancha) next door had also just sold out. I planned to have the meat porridge next time, but the shop was cleared out shortly after.





I ate a warm red bean paste rice cake (gaogan) from Wenergu Gaogan at the entrance of the Great Southern Mosque (Nandasi).





The Longyuezhai Zhangji fried cake (zhagao) I ate in the summer has actually closed down.



This Yishuncheng branch on Huanqing West Alley opened recently, so I had a bowl of scorched rice soup (guobacai) there.









The freshly brewed sour plum drink (suanmeitang) on Xima Road is really delicious.







I had a beef pancake (niuroubing) with rice porridge next to the Muslim supermarket.













I bought a pear cake (ligao) from Daiji Candy Shop at the archway of the Great Southern Mosque (Nandasi).













May 2019

I visited Tianjin again in May 2019 and took a walk around the Northwest Corner (Xibeijiao).

The various snacks at Daiji Candy Shop under the Great Southern Mosque (Nandasi) archway are perfect for tea. I bought beef jerky and potato chips, and I especially like their beef jerky.









You can buy the ingredients for making traditional sour plum drink (suanmeitang) at Daiji Candy Shop under the Great Southern Mosque (Nandasi) archway in the Northwest Corner (Xibeijiao) nearby.



I also bought Tianjin-style steamed pear cake (shuligao) on Xiguan Street, and every flavor was different.







June 2019

On June 30, 2019, I made a special trip to the Northwest Corner of Tianjin for a snack tour.

I got up early and headed straight to Zhengweizhai next to the South Mosque in the Northwest Corner to eat savory crepe strips in gravy (guobacai). They are open from 6:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. I had been there several times before and it was always sold out, but this time I finally got to eat it.

Zhengweizhai is known as the best place for guobacai in Tianjin, and the line there every morning is the longest in the Northwest Corner. Mu Sangu runs Zhengweizhai, making sure the gravy is hot, the toppings are plentiful, and the crepe strips are made in-house. The spoonful of black sauce that Mu Sangu ladles onto the crepe strips is their secret recipe, and that one spoonful puts them miles ahead of everyone else.

Also, mung bean crepe strips spoil easily in the summer, so guobacai shops traditionally used to close for the summer or switch to selling mung bean starch soup (fentang). Now that we have refrigerators, most breakfast shops keep the crepe strips in the fridge during the hottest days, but this ruins the flavor and texture. Zhengweizhai is the only one that still insists on closing for the summer, shutting down from mid-July to mid-August every year.









Zhengweizhai still keeps the tradition of serving guobacai with steamed corn buns (wotou), but this time we chose to buy hot-water dough red bean paste fried cakes (zhagao) from across the street. The hot-water dough fried cakes are red, which is different from the traditional yellow glutinous rice fried cakes, but they are also very delicious.









After finishing the crispy rice pancake (guobacai), I turned the corner and went to Chenmeizhai nearby for vermicelli soup (fentang) and millet porridge with sesame paste (miancha). Vermicelli soup is a traditional Tianjin breakfast, but it is getting harder to find these days, and this was my first time trying it. It is made by pouring a savory sauce over vermicelli noodles, topped with dried shrimp and chive leaves, which makes it taste incredibly fresh. I have been drinking millet porridge with sesame paste since I was a kid, but the version in Tianjin is truly better than the one in Beijing. Tianjin's version uses two layers of sesame paste and seasoned salt, making it much richer and more fragrant than the Beijing style.









Across from Chenmeizhai is a shop selling steamed rice cakes (gaogan), so I bought some fresh ones filled with red bean paste. I have loved these steamed rice cakes since I was little, but the ones sold in supermarkets dry out and lose their texture. They have to be freshly made and hot to taste good.









I walked north from the South Mosque in the Northwest Corner to Jieyuan Road to eat fried bean skin rolls (juanquan). Fried bean skin rolls are a Tianjin specialty snack. They are made by wrapping bean sprouts, starch noodles, and fermented bean curd paste in bean skin and deep-frying them until they are hot, crispy, and fragrant.









November 2019

On November 2, 2019, during late autumn, I went to Tianjin to explore and eat, heading straight to the Northwest Corner first thing in the morning. Over the past few years, I have watched the Northwest Corner go from bustling to quiet, seeing one renovation after another and shop after shop closing down. This time when I visited the Northwest Corner, it felt even quieter than before. The only good news is that a few new shops have opened in the Northwest Corner, and I tried two of them this time.

I started with a savory crepe (jianbing guozi) from the shop under the South Mosque archway. It is run by the nephew of Auntie Mu from Zhengweizhai, and it tastes just like the old days and is cheap.







I had lamb porridge at the halal porridge house by the entrance of the South Mosque. The porridge house has only been open for half a month, and after the renovations in the Northwest Corner, it is finally possible to get lamb porridge again. The lamb porridge of the Hui Muslims in Tianjin is made by boiling down the bone fat and marrow from lamb leg bones, making it very flavorful. It is a bit like the Kazakh Nauryz meat porridge I had before, made by Master Rouhua.







I also bought some stir-fried shrimp paste (chao xiajiang) at the South Mosque archway.





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Summary: Tianjin Northwest Corner — Muslim Food and Street Changes is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Zainab loved the steamed rice cake (gaogan) we bought at the gate of the South Mosque last time. The account keeps its focus on Tianjin Halal Food, Northwest Corner, Muslim Streets while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.



Zainab loved the steamed rice cake (gaogan) we bought at the gate of the South Mosque last time. This time she tried it a new way, spreading hawthorn jam directly over the red bean paste, which made it taste twice as good.





I ate beef steamed dumplings (zhengjiao) at Shanji on Xiguan Street. They were made with leavened dough, so I felt full the moment I finished.





May 2020

I had not left Beijing for three months. When the Chaoyang District finally turned green during the May Day holiday, I quickly went to Tianjin for a visit. Since it was Ramadan, I could not really enjoy the food tour.

I came to the Northwest Corner in the afternoon to shop. I bought dried apple and pineapple and hawthorn strips (jinggaotiao) at Daiji Candy Shop, but unfortunately, I could not find the beef jerky I really like.



Dates (yezao) for Ramadan









I bought ingredients for sour plum drink (suanmeitang) at Xiaolao Yan Chaolaowei Nut Shop, and I started brewing it as soon as I got home!







Sheep trotters (yangti) and sour plum drink (suanmeitang) bought at Shengfahao







I bought a seaweed rice roll with egg yolk and pork floss at Zhangji Fried Skewers.





Xiguan Street during the pandemic





March 2021

On the weekend of March 12, my parents-in-law were in Tianjin, so Zainab and I went there to have a family reunion. This was also my first time leaving Beijing in 2021.

On Saturday morning, the whole family went to the Northwest Corner to have breakfast. We had millet flour porridge (miancha) and starch soup (fentang) at Chenmeizhai, and crispy crepe strips in sauce (guobacai) at Enqingcheng. The line at Zhengweizhai was too long, so we skipped it. It was a pity that the mutton porridge was sold out.



















Then we had three-delicacy tofu (sanxian laodoufu) and water caltrop soup (lingjiao tang) at Yishuncheng, fried bean paste rolls (juanquan) at Dingji, and fried cakes (zhagao) at Shengxingzhai.















We passed by Guishunzhai.



Strolling around the Northwest Corner.





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Summary: Beijing Mishi Hutong Mosque — Southern-Style Architecture is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Today, tucked behind construction hoardings next to the Caishikou subway station in Beijing, two historical buildings remain from the Daji area demolition ten years ago. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Mosques, Mishi Hutong, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Today, tucked behind construction hoardings next to the Caishikou subway station in Beijing, two historical buildings remain from the Daji area demolition ten years ago. One of them is the famous former residence of Kang Youwei. The other is a two-story building that once housed the old Bianyifang restaurant, which first opened in the 14th year of the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty (1416). The old Bianyifang closed in 1937 due to the war. Soon after, Hui Muslims from the five northwestern provinces living in Beijing raised over 10,000 yuan to buy the building. After renovations, it officially became the Mishihutong Mosque on January 1, 1940, and also served as the office for the Northwest Five Provinces Association.

The building housing the Mishihutong Mosque was originally built in the mid-to-late Qing Dynasty. It started as an L-shaped structure made of three northern rooms and four western rooms. It featured a hard-mountain roof with a rolled-shed style (yingshan juanpeng ding) and a suspended-mountain open corridor (xuanshan changlang) connected together, with a garden on the east side.

The old Mishihutong area has been completely leveled, leaving only the mosque building.



A view of the mosque from the northeast.



A view of the mosque from the north. The north building is on the left and the west building is on the right. You can see the simple gray brick walls and arched windows.



On the connected roof of the north building, you can see exquisite hanging eaves (daogua meizi), wooden railings, and brick carvings.





When it was converted into a mosque in 1940, three southern open-hall rooms were added, changing the L-shaped layout into a U-shaped one. At the same time, a two-story flat-roofed open hall was built in the recessed area, connecting with the southern open-hall rooms to create a semi-enclosed space on the second floor used as the main prayer hall. After the renovation, the building only kept a small courtyard on the east side, and you must pass through the open hall to enter each room, which is a typical feature of southern architecture.

Looking at the mosque from south to north, the west building is on the left, and the south open-style pavilion (changxuan) added in 1940 is on the right.



Looking at the mosque from east to west, the south open-style pavilion is on the left, and the connected north building is on the right.



The flat-roofed open hall (changting) added in 1940.





The exquisite wooden lattice screens and door lintel carvings on the first floor of the mosque, along with some abandoned rooms. You can see that time stopped here in April 2012, exactly 10 years ago.

In the 1940s, the Mishi Hutong Mosque became a center for Hui Muslims from the northwest living in Beijing, with Imam Ye Liangpu serving as the first head imam. At that time, the Mishi Hutong Mosque and the Tianqiao Mosque, also built during the Republic of China era, were brother mosques that would invite each other's imams.

After the 1960s, the Mishi Hutong Mosque was turned into a dormitory for a toy factory and later became a residential compound.

After the Daji area southeast of Caishikou was demolished, more than 30 guild halls, various temples, shops, and former residences of famous people were turned into ruins. By 2012, only the former residence of Kang Youwei and the Mishi Hutong Mosque remained as historical buildings. It is a pity that the original gate of the Mishi Hutong Mosque, which featured traditional Arabic calligraphy, has been torn down, leaving only the small two-story building inside. People say both the Mishi Hutong Mosque and the former residence of Kang Youwei will be renovated and repurposed, but it is unclear what this place will look like then.



















The second floor of the mosque was once a private dining room for the Old Bianyifang Restaurant. Later, it became the office for the Northwest Five Provinces Association and the main prayer hall of the mosque. It then served as a dormitory for a toy factory and a crowded residential courtyard, before finally falling into ruins.



















After visiting the ruins of the Mishihutong Mosque, I rode my bike to the Zhengyang Bookstore in Xisi. I looked through the Xuannan Hongxue Tuzhi, a book about the history and culture of the Xuannan area, and found the original architectural surveys of the Mishihutong Mosque inside. You can clearly see the open space added to the second floor, along with many wooden lattice screens.









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Summary: Tehran Reza Abbasi Museum: Persian Miniatures, Ceramics and Islamic Art is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the second half of 1978, strikes and protests almost paralyzed all of Iran, and the Reza Abbasi Museum was forced to close in November. The account keeps its focus on Tehran Travel, Islamic Art, Persian Miniatures while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In the second half of 1978, strikes and protests almost paralyzed all of Iran, and the Reza Abbasi Museum was forced to close in November. In 1979, the Pahlavi dynasty fell, the Islamic Republic of Iran was established, and the Reza Abbasi Museum reopened. After closing and reopening several more times, the museum is now managed by the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization and houses various precious Iranian artifacts from prehistoric times to the Islamic period.



Table of Contents

1. Miniatures from the Shahnameh (Book of Kings)

1. Shahnameh miniatures from the Ilkhanate period

2. Shahnameh miniatures from the Timurid period

3. Shahnameh miniatures from the Safavid dynasty period

2. Miniatures from the Compendium of Chronicles (Jami' al-tawarikh) from the Timurid Empire period

3. Other miniatures

4. Pottery from the 9th to 10th centuries unearthed in the ancient city of Nishapur in Khorasan

5. Ceramics from the 12th to 14th centuries from the ancient Iranian city of Kashan

6. Iranian tiles from the 12th to 13th century Seljuk Empire and

the Ilkhanate period.

7. A gold-inlaid silver plate made in 1009 AD.

1. Miniatures from the Shahnameh (Book of Kings)

Persian miniature painting emerged during the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. During the Ilkhanate rule in the 13th and 14th centuries, the royal court moved often for seasonal changes, wars, and hunting. Portable books became the best surface for painting, and the art of miniatures continued to grow. The Mongols brought many Eastern artistic influences to Persian miniatures. For example, some mythical beasts were drawn to look like qilin, phoenixes, pixiu, and Chinese dragons.

Several centers for Persian miniature painting appeared between the 13th and 15th centuries. As the capital of the Ilkhanate, Tabriz was the earliest center for miniatures, and Baghdad, which was under Persian rule at the time, was also very important. In the mid-to-late 14th century, Shiraz in southern Iran became a center for literature and art, and Shiraz miniatures became world-famous. By the early 15th century, after the Timurid era, Bukhara and Herat became centers for miniatures under the patronage of the Timurid royal family. During this period, each miniature painting center had its own unique style. These styles did not gradually merge until the Safavid dynasty ruled in the 16th century.

1. Miniature paintings from the Book of Kings (Shahnameh) during the Ilkhanate period.

During the Ilkhanate period, miniature paintings based on classic Persian poetry began to appear. The most famous is the Persian epic poem Book of Kings (Shahnameh), written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between 977 and 1010. It describes the myths and historical legends of the Persian Empire from its founding until it was conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century.

The earliest surviving Ilkhanate manuscripts of the Book of Kings are three small manuscripts. This small size was likely more convenient to carry while moving between nomadic camps.

The two images below are illustrations from the manuscript known as the First Small Book of Kings, which is believed to be in the late 13th-century Baghdad style.





This depicts the Iranian prince Salm killing his younger brother Iraj out of jealousy. Years later, Iraj's grandson, the legendary king Manuchehr, killed Salm to avenge his grandfather.

The two images below are illustrations from the manuscript known as the Second Small Book of Kings, which is believed to be in the late 13th-century Baghdad style.



This depicts the Kabul princess Rudaba talking to her female slave so she could meet her husband, the Iranian king Zal. Rudaba is the mother of the legendary hero Rostam, the protagonist of the Book of Kings.



This depicts Ardashir, the founder of the Persian Sasanian dynasty, receiving a warning from his enemy Haftvād.

There are four other manuscripts produced in the early 14th century by the Injuid family, who ruled the Shiraz and Isfahan regions of southern Iran and were semi-independent from the Ilkhanate.

The image below is one of these, done in the Shiraz style. It shows the Iranian hero Bahram being mortally wounded by Tazhav while fighting the Turanians (the Persian name for Central Asian people), a scene from shortly before his death.



Among the Shahnameh manuscripts from the Ilkhanate period, the most famous one is known as the Great Mongol Shahnameh, the Great Ilkhanid Shahnameh, or the Demotte Shahnameh. It is considered the greatest work of early Persian miniature painting.

In the early 14th century, the Persian Jewish vizier of the Ilkhanate, Rashid al-Din, set up a book production department in the suburbs of the Ilkhanate capital, Tabriz, specifically to create books containing miniature paintings. After Rashid al-Din died in 1318, his son Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad continued his father's work by producing miniature manuscripts in the 1330s.

Based on research by later historians, it is believed that Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad produced the Great Mongol Shahnameh manuscript in Tabriz in 1335, under the patronage of the ninth Ilkhanid ruler, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan (reigned 1316–1335).

The Great Mongol Shahnameh was kept in Tabriz until the 16th century, after which it entered the library of the Golestan Palace in Tehran. In the late 19th century, taking photographs of the manuscript was still restricted.

In the early 20th century, the Belgian art dealer Georges Demotte, who was active in Paris, acquired the Great Mongol Shahnameh. Because he could not get a suitable price from potential buyers like the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Demotte eventually tore the manuscript apart to sell it in pieces. To hide the damage caused by tearing the book apart, Demotte hired calligraphers to add new text to the manuscript, which greatly annoyed buyers who could read Persian.

The image below is an illustration from the Tabriz-style Great Mongol Shahnameh, depicting the hanging of Mani.







2. Shahnameh miniature paintings from the Timurid dynasty

During the Timurid dynasty, Bukhara became a center for producing the Book of Kings (Shahnameh).

The image below shows a late 14th-century illustration of the Book of Kings in the Herat style, depicting the Iranian hero Bahram shooting his prey.



The image below shows an early 15th-century miniature painting of the Book of Kings in the Bukhara style, depicting Garsiwaz killing his brother, the Turanian king Afrasiab.





3. Miniature paintings of the Book of Kings from the Safavid dynasty period

During the Safavid dynasty's rule over Iran in the 16th and 17th centuries, the production of Book of Kings miniature paintings saw a revival. Ismail I (reigned 1502-1524), the founder of the Safavid dynasty, used the production of Book of Kings manuscripts to emphasize the authority of Persian kings and to strengthen Persian patriotism. Later generations consider the miniature painting created during the Safavid period to be the last great era of the art form.

A 16th-century miniature painting of the Book of Kings in the Tabriz style, depicting the hero Esfandiyar slaying a dragon. Esfandiyar was an Iranian prince, and his father once sent him to suppress a rebellion and rescue a kidnapped princess. On his journey, he fought seven different battles, one of which was killing a dragon.



A 16th-century miniature painting of the Book of Kings in the Tabriz style, depicting the legendary hero Rostam fighting his enemies.



A late 16th-century miniature painting of the Book of Kings in the Khorasan style, depicting the Turanian king Afrasiab being led out of a cave by Houm.



A 16th-century Shiraz-style miniature painting from the Shahnameh, showing the Iranian hero Bahram on his way to Egypt.



A 16th-century Tabriz-style miniature painting from the Shahnameh, showing the war between Darab, Shoaib, and the Arabs.



A late 16th-century Shiraz-style miniature painting from the Shahnameh.



A 17th-century Shiraz-style miniature painting from the Shahnameh, showing the war between the legendary King Kay Khosrow of the Iranian Kayanian dynasty and King Shideh of Turan.



3 Produced by Tahmasp I of the Safavid dynasty.

Tahmasbi Shahnameh miniature painting.

The Tahmasbi Shahnameh, also called the Houghton Shahnameh, was commissioned by Tahmasp I (reigned 1524-1576) of the Safavid dynasty. The greatest painters of the Safavid era worked on it, and it originally included 258 miniature paintings. Because the Safavid capital was in Tabriz at the time, the Tahmasbi Shahnameh has a Tabriz style.

In 1959, the famous collector Arthur Houghton bought this Shahnameh from the wealthy French Jew Edmond de Rothschild. Only 118 miniature paintings remained at that time.

Since 1962, Arthur Houghton broke up the Tahmasbi Shahnameh and donated 88 of the paintings to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York to avoid taxes (Houghton had served as the president of the Metropolitan Museum of Art for many years). After that, Houghton auctioned off the miniature paintings several times. After Houghton died in 1990, the Houghton Foundation decided to sell the collection for 13 million dollars, but no one bought it because the price was too high. British seller Oliver Hoare suggested that Iran trade the remaining Shahnameh miniatures for the painting Lady No. 3 by Dutch artist Willem de Kooning, because the painting was banned from public display in Iran for being anti-Islamic. In the end, the Tahmasbi Shahnameh returned to Iran.

The image below shows the Sassanid king Bahram Chobin (reigned 590-591) fighting Sava Shah.



A Shahnameh miniature produced by Ismail II of the Safavid dynasty.

Ismail II (reigned 1576-1577) was the third ruler of the Safavid dynasty. At that time, the Safavid capital was Qazvin, Iran (1548–1598), so the miniatures from this period have a Qazvin style.

The image below shows the author of the Shahnameh, Ferdowsi, walking toward several court poets of the Ghaznavids. An enlarged version of this miniature is posted in the hall right at the entrance of the Reza Abbasi Museum. It is also the cover of the book Entering the Orchard in Spring.





Reproduction:



The image below shows the legendary Iranian prince Siavash undergoing a trial by fire, while his father, the Iranian king Kay Kavus, and his stepmother, Queen Sudabeh, watch from a balcony.



The image below shows Siavash hunting with the Turanian king Afrasiyab. The second part of the Shahnameh says that Siavash willingly became a hostage in Turan so that Iran and Turan could have peace. However, the king broke the peace treaty and committed a series of atrocities, which made Siavash decide to start a new life in Turan. King Afrasiyab of Turan gave Siavash a warm welcome, and Siavash fell in love with the king's daughter and married her.



The image below shows the story of the mythical bird Simurgh taking care of the great hero Zal. Simurgh is a kind mythical bird in Iranian legends, similar to a phoenix. It appears often in various Iranian myths, most famously in the Shahnameh.

In the Shahnameh, the Iranian hero Saam's son, Zal, was born with albinism. Saam thought his son was a demon's child, so he abandoned him on Mount Alborz. The kind Simurgh living on the mountain peak heard the baby crying and raised him. Zal learned much wisdom and knowledge from the loving Simurgh.

In the picture, the mythical bird Simurgh is holding the baby Zal, and below them is Zal's father, Saam.



The image below shows the scene of the Iranian hero Esfandiyar slaying a dragon. Esfandiyar was an Iranian prince, and his father once sent him to suppress a rebellion and rescue a kidnapped princess. On his journey, he fought seven different battles, one of which was killing a dragon.



The image below shows the scene of the Iranian hero Esfandiyar killing the Turanian hero Biderafsh. When the King of Turan learned that the Iranians had converted to Zoroastrianism, he wrote a letter to the King of Iran demanding they abandon their faith and sent Biderafsh as a messenger to Iran. The King of Iran refused the demand, which started a war between Turan and Iran. During the war, Biderafsh was killed by the Iranian hero Esfandiyār.



The image below shows the legendary Iranian King Kay Khosrow talking with the Iranian heroes Zal, Rostam, and others.



The image below shows the legendary Iranian King Kay Khosrow crossing a river with his mother Farangis and the hero Giv.



The image below shows the King of Yemen, Sarv, sitting on his throne with his three daughters on his left and the three sons of the mythical Iranian King Fereydun on his right.



The image below shows the Iranians surrounded by the Turanian army on Mount Hamawan as they watch reinforcements arrive.



The image below depicts the tragic story between the Iranian hero Rostam and his son Sohrab. Once, Rostam followed the tracks of his lost horse to the Kingdom of Samangan, where he met Princess Tahmina. The princess admired Rostam greatly, so she came to his room at night and said that if he gave her a child, she would return his horse. Rostam agreed and did so. Before leaving, Rostam gave the princess two tokens. If she gave birth to a girl, she should braid the tokens into the child's hair along with some jewelry. If it was a boy, they tied the token to the child's arm. Later, the princess gave birth to a boy and named him Sohrab.

Many years later, Iran and Turan went to war. As a legendary hero of Iran, Rostam forced the Turan army to retreat, and no one dared to face him. Eventually, Sohrab and Rostam fought each other. Although he knew his father was named Rostam, he did not know that the man in front of him was his father. After a long battle, Rostam finally broke Sohrab's back and stabbed him. Before he died, Sohrab said his father would avenge him, and that was when the father and son finally recognized each other. Sohrab took out the token his mother had given him. Rostam was heartbroken, but he could not save his son.



Other miniature paintings in the Qazvin style.

The image below is a 16th-century Qazvin-style miniature painting from Saadi's The Orchard (Bustan).

The Orchard (Bustan) is a collection of lyric poems completed by the famous Persian poet Saadi in 1257. It is considered one of Saadi's two greatest works, alongside The Rose Garden (Golestan).



2. Miniatures from the Compendium of Chronicles (Jami' al-tawarikh) from the Timurid Empire period

The Compendium of Chronicles (Jami' al-tawarikh) is a world history book from the Ilkhanate period. It was commissioned by the seventh Ilkhan, Ghazan (reigned 1295-1304), and edited by his vizier and scholar Rashid-al-Din Hamadani. Because of its scope, the book is known as the first world history. It covers various histories, cultures, and major events from China to Europe.

By the early 14th century, the Mongols of the Ilkhanate had settled down and adopted Persian cultural customs. Ghazan's original idea was to write a book that preserved the traditions of the Ilkhanate Mongols by explaining their history on the steppes. To compile the history, Rashid-al-Din set up a special area at the Rab'-e Rashidi university in the Ilkhanate capital of Tabriz. This area included many buildings such as a mosque, a hospital, a library, and classrooms.

After Ghazan died in 1304, his successor, Öljaitü (reigned 1304-1316), asked Rashid-al-Din to expand the scope of the compilation to cover the entire known world history. The Compendium of Chronicles was finally completed between 1306 and 1311. Afterward, Rashid-al-Din organized hundreds of miniature painters and calligraphers to produce one Persian copy and one Arabic copy of the Compendium of Chronicles every year to distribute to schools throughout the Ilkhanate. Rashid-al-Din produced 20 copies of the Compendium of Chronicles during his lifetime, which are known as the first-generation manuscripts. Only a very small number have survived, and they are extremely precious examples of early Persian miniature painting.

In the early 15th century, the Timurid Empire replaced the Ilkhanate as the ruler of Iran and took a great interest in the Compendium of Chronicles. At that time, Shah Rukh (reigned 1405-1447), the ruler of the eastern part of the Timurid Empire, owned an incomplete manuscript of the Compendium of Chronicles. He commissioned the court historian Hafiz-i Abru to continue the work in Herat, Afghanistan, which was Shah Rukh's capital. The continuation brought the content up to the Timurid era, and the miniature paintings in it have a typical Timurid style.





3. Other miniatures

A 16th-century miniature painting from Saadi's The Rose Garden (Gulistan).

Saadi Shirazi was a famous 13th-century Persian poet. He is widely considered one of the greatest poets in classical Persian literature and has had a huge influence on later generations. The Rose Garden (Gulistan, literally meaning 'rose garden') is a masterpiece of classical Persian literature. Saadi wrote it in 1258, and it is a collection of poems and stories.

The image below shows a 16th-century miniature painting of The Rose Garden in the Herat style from the Safavid dynasty.



A 15th to 16th-century miniature painting in the Bukhara style.

A 15th-century miniature painting from the Timurid dynasty in the Bukhara style, depicting 'Imam Ali slaying a dragon' in the Khavaran-Nameh.



A 15th-century miniature painting of Saadi's The Orchard (Bustan) in the Bukhara style.



A 16th-century miniature painting in the Bukhara style.



A miniature painting in the Khorasan style.

A 15th-century miniature painting of The Garden of Truth (The Hadiqa Tul Haqiqat) in the Khorasan style. The original work is by the famous 11th to 12th-century Persian Sufi poet Sanai, and The Garden of Truth is his masterpiece.



A miniature painting in the Shiraz style.

16th-century Shiraz-style miniature painting.



Herat-style miniature painting.

1592 Herat-style miniature painting showing two people in a garden.



4. Pottery from the 9th to 10th centuries unearthed in the ancient Khorasan city of Nishapur.

Nishapur is located on the ancient Silk Road in northeastern Iran and was once one of the four major cities in the Greater Khorasan region. In the 9th century, Nishapur became the capital of the Persian Tahirid dynasty. Under the rule of the Persian Samanid dynasty in the 10th century, Nishapur grew into an important cultural and commercial center of the Islamic world. Various cultures and religions gathered here, and trade routes from Transoxiana in Central Asia, China, Iraq, and Egypt met in this city. The glazed pottery produced in Nishapur at that time became an important trade commodity in the West, once rivaling Baghdad and Cairo.

In 1221, the Mongols massacred the population of Nishapur and completely destroyed the city, burying the former metropolis underground. It was not until the mid-20th century that the site was rediscovered through archaeological excavations. Today, most of the unearthed Nishapur ceramics are kept at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as well as in museums in Tehran and Mashhad.













5. Ceramics from the 12th to 14th centuries from the ancient Iranian city of Kashan

Kashan is south of Tehran. During the Seljuk Empire and Ilkhanate rule from the 12th to 14th centuries, it was a major center for making high-quality pottery and tiles in Iran. In modern Persian, the word for tile (kashi) comes from Kashan.



















6. Iranian tiles from the Seljuk Empire and Ilkhanate period, 12th to 13th centuries.

The tiles have a very unique style.









7. A gold-inlaid silver plate made in 1009 AD.

They feature beautiful Kufic calligraphy. At that time, the Buyid dynasty ruled western Iran, and the Ghaznavid dynasty ruled the east.





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Summary: Hyderabad — Muslim Food and Old City Streets is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: It is the Lunar New Year, so let's eat something good. The account keeps its focus on Hyderabad Travel, Indian Halal Food, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

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Summary: Carter Holton's Old Photos of Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Pastor Hai Yingguang was an American missionary whose original name was Carter Holton. The account keeps its focus on Tibetan Hui Muslims, Old Photos, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Pastor Hai Yingguang was an American missionary whose original name was Carter Holton. He worked in Northwest China from 1923 to 1949 and left behind over 5,000 precious photographs. After Pastor Hai Yingguang passed away, his daughter Lora Jean Heurlin donated these materials to the Harvard-Yenching Library in the early 1990s. The library finished digitizing them in 2011.

Online address: library.harvard.edu/collections/carter-d-holton-collection

In 1930, Pastor Hai Yingguang and his family returned to Xunhua, Qinghai, for missionary work. Between 1932 and 1934, he took some precious photos of the Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims. Kaligang is located in the southwest of Hualong, Qinghai. Kaligang means big mountain in the Tibetan language. The area is full of high mountains and deep gullies, making transportation very difficult. In 1756, Ma Laichi, the founder of the Huasi menhuan, went to the Kaligang area to preach. This led local Tibetan people to convert to Islam, forming the unique Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims.

The brick carvings of the Huangwuju mosque in Dehenglong Township and the Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims. On the right is the leader of the Dehenglong Kaligang tribe.



Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims in 1932.









In Dehenglong, Kaligang in 1932.



Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims in 1933.

























































Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims in 1934.









Kaligang Tibetan Hui Muslims photographed in Labuleng Town in 1939.

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Summary: Kazan Kremlin — Tatarstan Museum and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Kazan Kremlin sits in the heart of Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan, and started as a fortress for the Volga Bulgaria khanate. The account keeps its focus on Kazan Travel, Tatarstan Museum, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

The history of Kazan city.

Kazan Kremlin sits in the heart of Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan, and started as a fortress for the Volga Bulgaria khanate. After the 9th century, the Bulgars living along the Volga River kept expanding to the northwest. To protect trade routes on the Volga, the Bulgars built a military fortress between the 10th and 11th centuries in the middle reaches of the river, featuring a 4-meter-deep steep trench and a 3-meter-high earthen wall; this marks the beginning of Kazan's history as a city.

In the late 12th century, the Volga Bulgaria khanate added a 2-meter-thick white stone wall to Kazan city to defend against constant attacks from Russian principalities. After Kazan joined the Golden Horde in the 13th century, it jumped from a border fortress to become the political and economic center of the middle Volga, famous for leather, jewelry, ceramics, and metalwork.

After the Golden Horde collapsed in the 15th century, the Kazan Khanate (1438-1552) was established in Kazan. As the capital, Kazan's population grew quickly, and many homes and public buildings were built, including the Kazan Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs, with tall minarets defining the city skyline.

In 1552, Ivan the Terrible of Russia attacked Kazan, destroyed the Kazan Khanate, and forced all Tatars out of the city, allowing only Russians to settle there. Between 1556 and 1562, Ivan the Terrible ordered the construction of the Kazan Kremlin on the site of the old Kazan Khanate fortress. The mosques, the Kazan Khan's palace, and the tombs were first used as armories and ammunition depots, but they were all torn down by the 18th century.











Restoration images of the Volga Bulgaria and Kazan Khanate periods from the official Kazan Kremlin website.





The tomb of the Kazan Khan.

In 1977, water engineers digging for a rainwater pipe at the Kazan Kremlin accidentally uncovered a tomb and immediately contacted the archaeology department. Archaeological excavations lasted for 10 years and uncovered five graves. Two were confirmed to be those of the actual founders of the Kazan Khanate: Kazan Khan Mäxmüd (died in 1463 or 1466) and his grandson, Kazan Khan Möxämmät Ämin (died in 1518). The tomb was originally built from white stone and eventually collapsed in the 17th century.

For further research, the remains of the two Kazan Khans, Mäxmüd and Möxämmät Ämin, were kept at the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences for 40 years. In May 2017, after persistent efforts by the Tatar Muslims of Kazan, the two Kazan Khans were finally reburied not far from the original tomb site.

The burial site discovered in 1977.





Likely relics from the Khan's palace mosque.



Khan Mäxmüd was the eldest son of Ulugh Muhammad, the Great Khan of the Golden Horde, and a descendant of Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi. In 1438, his father Ulugh Muhammad occupied Kazan and began constant raids on the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Mäxmüd joined his father's attack on Moscow and won a major victory in 1445, capturing Grand Prince Vasily II and forcing the Grand Duchy of Moscow to pay tribute to Kazan. Mäxmüd took the throne in 1445 and kept control over Moscow. During his reign, Kazan completely separated from the Golden Horde, marking the beginning of what later generations called the Kazan Khanate.

Khan Muhammad Amin was the grandson of Khan Mahmud. From the age of 10, he was involved in the struggles between pro-Russian and anti-Russian factions within the khanate. As a khan supported by Moscow, he took the throne three times: from 1484 to 1485, 1487 to 1495, and 1502 to 1518. He also paid tribute to Grand Prince Ivan III of Moscow. Later in his reign, he stopped paying tribute to Moscow and worked to strengthen his country to oppose the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

The burial site was re-interred in 2017.





Between 2004 and 2005, the Institute of Archaeology of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences re-excavated the Kazan Khan mausoleum. They discovered the graves of four more Kazan khans: Khalil (died 1467), Ibrahim (died 1478), Safa Giray (died 1549), and Canghali (died 1535). Today, these four Kazan khan graves are protected under a glass roof.

Khan Khalil was the eldest son of Khan Mahmud. He was known for violating treaties with the Grand Prince of Moscow and for his poor relationship with the Nogai tribe. The young khan died early, not long after taking the throne. One legend says he died in prison due to the war with the Golden Horde.

Khan Ibrahim was the younger brother of Khan Khalil. He fought against the Grand Duchy of Moscow many times and won a great victory in the 1467 war against Grand Prince Ivan III of Moscow.

Khan Safa Giray came from the Giray family of the Crimean Khanate. He served as the Kazan khan three times: from 1524 to 1531, 1535 to 1546, and 1546 to 1549. Safa Giray was an anti-Russian Kazan khan. His first reign ended when the Grand Duchy of Moscow attacked Kazan. Four years later, he took the throne again after Kazan nobles overthrew the pro-Russian khan. Eleven years later, internal unrest in Kazan led to him being overthrown again by the pro-Russian Kazan Khan. Safa Giray fled to his father-in-law's Nogai tribe, returned to Kazan with a Nogai army a few months later, and became the Kazan Khan for the third time.

Khan Ghali was originally the khan of the Qasim Khanate, a vassal state of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In 1532, Grand Prince Vasily III of Moscow defeated the Kazan Khan Safa Giray and installed 16-year-old Khan Ghali as the pro-Russian Kazan Khan. He died in 1535 during a coup by Kazan nobles.









The names of six Kazan khans



Kul Sharif Mosque

At the entrance of the Kul Sharif Mosque inside the Kazan Kremlin, there are performances about the Siege of Kazan. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible besieged Kazan. The last imam of the Kazan Khanate, Seid Kul Sharif, led the people in a final stand and eventually died in the city. Today, Seid Kul Sharif is a national hero to the Kazan Tatars, and the new Kul Sharif Mosque built in 2005 is named after him.







The imam chanting inside the mosque has a beautiful and moving voice. This is the first time I have seen a mosque open to tourists to experience chanting firsthand.



There is a small Islamic culture museum on the basement level of the mosque.



A pocket-sized Quran (gureani) from the Kazan Tatars in the late 19th century.



A display showing an imam and a student (hailifan) teaching scripture in the 19th century.



Porcelain from the ancient city of Bolghar dating back to the 10th to 13th centuries.





A decorative panel from the Golden Horde period.



Literacy materials and magazines for Kazan Tatars from the early 20th century.







A handsome Tatar guy was selling mouth harps (kouxian) at the mosque entrance, and I really regret not buying one.





Republic of Tatarstan Museum

The National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan opened in 1895. The building was once the Gostinniy Hotel and is a historical monument of Tatarstan itself. The museum has over 800,000 items in its collection, including pieces related to the Golden Horde, the Kazan Khanate, and the Kazan Tatars.



A letter written in 1523 by Sahib I Giray, the Khan of Kazan who reigned from 1521 to 1524. There is a replica of this letter inside the Kazan Kremlin.

Sahib Giray was a descendant of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, and his grandfather founded the Crimean Khanate. In 1521, the Kazan Khanate wanted to break free from the Grand Duchy of Moscow. They overthrew the pro-Moscow Kazan Khan, Shahghali, and invited Sahib Giray from Crimea to Kazan to become the new Khan.

Sahib Giray attacked Moscow twice, in 1521 and 1522, and brought back many captives. In 1524, Moscow sent a large army to attack Kazan, forcing Sahib Giray to flee back to Crimea.

People actually know Sahib Giray better for what happened after that. In 1532, the Ottoman Empire installed Sahib Giray as the Crimean Khan. That same year, he built a new capital, Bakhchisarai, in a valley downstream from the old capital of the Crimean Khanate. For the next 250 years, Bakhchisarai served as the capital of the Crimean Khanate, where successive Khans built palaces and various mosque buildings. Today in Bakhchisarai, you can still see the Great Khan Mosque and the Sary Guzel bathhouse, both built under the direction of Sahib Giray in 1532.





A tombstone from the Golden Horde period in the 14th century.



Architectural pieces from the Golden Horde period in the 14th century. The bottom left shows pieces from the Great Mosque of Bolghar, dating from the late 13th to early 14th century.















A water basin from a public bathhouse in the ancient city of Bolghar during the 14th-century Golden Horde period.



Gate components from the Great Mosque of Bolghar during the Golden Horde period, dating from the late 13th to early 14th century.







A tombstone from Kazan during the Golden Horde period in the early 14th century.





A tombstone from the 14th to 15th century, dating back to the Golden Horde or Kazan Khanate period.





A miniature Quran box used by Kazan Tatars from the late 18th to the 19th century.





Jewelry worn by Kazan Tatars from the late 18th to the 19th century.













Embroidered caps worn by Kazan Tatars from the 19th to the early 20th century.













A 1902 publication from Kazan University Press introducing the ship Nu Hai and artifacts from the ancient city of Bolghar.





Traditional clothing of the Kazan Tatars from the 19th to the early 20th century.

















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