Reposted from the web

Summary: Old Photos of Hui Muslims in Northern China: Mosques, Cities and Community Life is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Waseda University Library holds a large collection of old photos from the Greater Japan Muslim Association (Dai-Nippon Kaikyo Kyokai, or DNKK). The account keeps its focus on Hui Muslims, Old Photos, China Mosques while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Waseda University Library holds a large collection of old photos from the Greater Japan Muslim Association (Dai-Nippon Kaikyo Kyokai, or DNKK). The DNKK was a wartime Japanese research organization for Islam. It started in 1938 and closed in 1945. They traveled to China and took many old photos of Hui Muslims. You can view them all online now.

Address: https://www.wul.waseda.ac.jp/k ... t.pdf

Hohhot.

The Great Mosque (Qingzhen Dasi) of Hohhot, photographed in September 1940.

The Great Mosque of Hohhot was first built between the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty. It was expanded in 1789 (the 54th year of the Qianlong reign) and again in 1923.





Datong

The Datong Mosque in September 1940.

The History of Yuan (Yuan Shi, Annals of Emperor Taiding, Part 1) records that in 1324 (the first year of the Yuan Taiding reign), the emperor ordered the construction of mosques in Shangdu and Datong Road, granting 40,000 ingots of paper money. This makes the Datong Mosque one of only two mosques recorded as being built by imperial decree during the Yuan Dynasty. However, the Yuan Dynasty Datong Mosque was completely destroyed during the wars at the end of the Yuan period. The current mosque was rebuilt inside the Datong city walls during the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty. The main gate of the mosque was rebuilt in 1936 and features a typical Republic of China era style.















Zhangjiakou.

The Xiguan Mosque in Zhangjiakou in September 1940. It had plaques reading 'Recognize the Truth' (renshi yizhen) and 'Principles Thoroughly Understood' (xingli guanche). The current plaques are all new.

The Xiguan Mosque was built during the Yongzheng reign of the Qing Dynasty (1723-1735) with funds raised by Hui Muslim families named Xiao, Zheng, Song, and Wang, who had lived in the Xiabao area of Zhangjiakou since the Ming and Qing dynasties.



An old halal mutton shop in Zhangjiakou during the 1930s.





An exhibit board about Hui Muslims in Zhangjiakou, drawn by the Japanese.





Baotou

The Baotou Mosque in September 1940.

The Great Mosque of Baotou was first built in 1743. It was expanded in 1809, had a porch and gate added in 1833, and was expanded several times during the Republic of China era.





Harbin

The Tatar Mosque in Harbin during the 1930s.

The Tatar Mosque was first built in 1906 and rebuilt in 1923. The designer was Yu. P. Zhdanov.



The Tatar Mosque in Harbin in September 1940.















Daowai Mosque in Harbin, September 1940.

Daowai Mosque was originally called Harbin East Mosque or Binjiang Mosque. It was first built in 1897. In 1935, at the suggestion of Imam Ma Songting, the head of the mosque, Bai Yusheng, raised funds to move the site and build a main prayer hall featuring Roman columns and Russian-style architecture.















Harbin Mosque in the 1930s.



Shenyang.

Mosques in Shenyang and Dalian in the 1930s.



Fengtian Mosque in September 1940. I am not sure which mosque this is; it does not look like the Shenyang South Mosque.





Fengtian Women's Mosque in September 1940.



Changchun.

Changtong Road Mosque in Changchun, June 1941. Changtong Road Mosque was first built in 1824 and expanded several times in 1852, 1864, and 1889.







Kaiyuan.

Kaiyuan Mosque in the 1930s. Kaiyuan Old City Mosque is located inside the east gate of Kaiyuan Old City. It was first built in 1406 (the fourth year of the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty) and is the oldest mosque in Northeast China.





Siping.

Siping Mosque in September 1940.



Other regions.

A pulpit (minbar), location unknown.





A mosque, location unknown.



Writing calligraphy, June 1941.





A scripture book.



A mosque in the 1930s.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: North China Muslim Life in Old Railway Photos: Hui Food, Shops and Streets is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: On February 12, 2019, the Institute for Research in Humanities at Kyoto University released 35,000 old photos from 1939-1945 held by the North China Transportation Company. The account keeps its focus on Hui Muslims, Old Photos, North China while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

On February 12, 2019, the Institute for Research in Humanities at Kyoto University released 35,000 old photos from 1939-1945 held by the North China Transportation Company. These photos, known as the North China Transportation Photographs, show the customs, folk culture, and lost landscapes of North China from 80 years ago.

The North China Transportation Company was founded in Beijing in April 1939 under the management of the Japanese Army. It managed railways, roads, rivers, and ports in North China while also producing propaganda, including the North China (Beizhi) pictorial magazine. Most of the North China Transportation Photographs were taken for the North China (Beizhi) pictorial.

The online address for the North China Transportation Photographs is: http://codh.rois.ac.jp/north-c ... zh-cn

Below, I share some scenes of Hui Muslim life in North China from the North China Transportation Company collection.

Beijing

A photo of the halal shop Gonghekui taken at the square in front of the Bell Tower on June 14, 1939.

The halal pastry shop Gonghekui opened in 1894 (the 20th year of the Guangxu reign). It was founded by Zhang Jishan, and the shop was located at the east entrance of Yandai Xiejie on the street outside Di'anmen. The main difference with halal pastries is that they use vegetable oil instead of animal fat. Gonghekui was known for making different pastries according to the season, including sweet rice balls (yuanxiao) for the Lantern Festival, sun cakes (taiyanggao) on the first day of the third lunar month, elm coin cakes (yuchiangao) in the third month, fresh rose cakes and fresh wisteria cakes in the fourth month, five-poison cakes (wudubing) for the Dragon Boat Festival, mung bean cakes and pea flour cakes (wandouhuang) in the sixth month, tuckahoe cakes (fulingbing) in the seventh month, mooncakes in the eighth month, honey twists (mimahua) and unicorn pastries (qilin su) in the ninth month, flower cakes (huagao) for the Double Ninth Festival, and ginger juice fried dough (jiangzhi paixia) during the Muslim month of Ramadan.

Besides pastries, Gonghekui also made its own popsicles in the summer. This is shown in the old photo, where the sign reads: "Machine-made, hygienic popsicles, cool and refreshing for summer," with smaller text below saying: West side of Di'anmen Street.



The halal Li Ji copper plaque in March 1941.



Baodu Feng in September 1941.

Here is an excerpt about Jinshenglong Baodu Feng from the book History of Beijing Dong'an Market (Huanhui Jisheng - Beijing Dong'an Shichang Shi):

Not long after the Dong'an Market opened, two Hui Muslims named Wang and Feng set up stalls selling tripe (baodu). Although the two families were cousins and their skills were similar, the competition was fierce as each tried to create unique features and attract customers. Later, Baodu Wang became famous first and by the 1940s had developed into the Xideshun Lamb Restaurant with two storefronts. Baodu Feng continued to run a stall until after the liberation, when they built a shed, hung the Jinshenglong sign, and continued to specialize in tripe.

Selling tripe is hard work. Jinshenglong founder Feng Tianjie worked alongside his wife and children. The beef and lamb tripe they used was bought from the slaughterhouses (niuguohuo) and lamb shops located between Chaoyangmen and Dongbianmen. The supply was not fixed, and families had to compete to buy it, often running around and humbly asking people for stock, only to sometimes come back empty-handed. When they bought tripe, they would get 40 to 50 jin at most, or 20 to 30 jin at least. Without transport, they had to carry bamboo baskets on their arms and walk several miles to bring it home. Cleaning tripe is even harder work. The Feng family lived in the slums outside Chaoyangmen near the South River bank. There was a bitter-water well nearby. For over thirty years, Feng Tianjie's wife went to the well almost every day with buckets and basins to wash tripe. Each piece of tripe had to be washed seven times, turning it inside out three times and right-side out four times, cleaning every leaf of the omasum (baiye) one by one. In winter, the water was freezing, leaving her hands red and swollen. Sometimes even her shoes would freeze to the well platform. After cleaning the tripe, she had to carry a basket and walk five or six li to sell it at the Dong'an Market.

Quick-boiled tripe (baodu) must be fresh; the fresher, the better. It is usually sold out the same day, within twenty-four hours. When the weather is warm, the cleaned tripe must be kept on ice to stay fresh. In cold weather, it must be protected from freezing. Because it is hard to store, the price changes. When supply is low, they sell it sparingly, but when there is too much or few customers due to bad weather, they have to sell it off cheaply. Every year after spring begins, there is less cattle and sheep slaughter, so the baodu business enters a slow season. In midsummer, when the mutton shops close their counters and the mutton carts stop, the baodu sellers have to put away their pots and temporarily sell things like mung bean jelly (liangfen) and rice cakes (paigao) to get through the slow season.



Wang's Halal Cuixianzhai.



In December 1940, a halal roasted mutton shop on Meishi Street outside Qianmen, where you can faintly see a water pitcher (tangping) image.







In January 1941, Zhang's Halal Hui Muslim rice cakes, during the first lunar month when rice cakes are in season.



On the storefront of a Hui Muslim family, you can see the owner is named Jia Tingrong.



The halal sign is very pointed. Inside are the three types of incense burners (luping sanshi). On the auspicious clouds above, there should be the pointed hat worn by an imam.



October 1941, calling the adhan at the Niujie Mosque.



The Niujie Mosque in October 1941.



The Niujie Mosque in March 1941.











The Niujie Mosque in April 1941.



September 1939, the imam of the Niujie Mosque.



September 1939, performing minor ablution (wudu) at the Niujie Mosque.



September 1939, the Quran (Guer'ani) at the Niujie Mosque, printed by the Beiping Chengda Normal School.



The Tianqiao Mosque in March 1939.

Tianqiao Mosque was located north of the mosque of Agriculture (Xiannongtan) between Fuchang Street Fourth and Fifth Lanes. It was built in 1926. Its demolition date is unknown, and the original site is now the Beijing Institute of Economics.



Tianqiao Mosque in March 1941.





Tianqiao Mosque in July 1941.









Zhangjiakou.

June 1938, performing wudu (ritual washing).



Mosque.



Islamic school (jingxuexiao).



Hohhot.

The minaret (bangkelou) on the gate of the Gansui Mosque in Hohhot in November 1939.

The Gansui Mosque, also known as the North Mosque (Qingzhen Beisi), was built during the Xianfeng era and started as a small Islamic primary school. In 1921, Hui Muslims from the Northwest who had recently arrived in Hohhot, including Li Fengzao and Su Jinpo, joined local Hui Muslims to buy 12 mu of land at the Wang Family Vegetable Garden outside the North Gate of Suiyuan on Tongdao Street. They rebuilt it over three and a half years and named it Gansui Mosque, commonly known as the North Mosque. Afterward, the North Mosque became the center for the Yihewani sect of Hui Muslims in Hohhot.

The North Mosque was demolished in 1962 and merged with the West Mosque to form the Northwest Mosque, which was rebuilt in 1986.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: Halal Food Guide: Noodles Abroad — Muslim Food from Moscow to Penang is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In the early 17th century, as the Romanov dynasty was established, Moscow became prosperous again, and many Tatars from the Volga River and steppe regions came here to trade. The account keeps its focus on Global Halal Food, Noodles, Muslim Travel while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) at the historic mosque in the Tatar community of Moscow, Russia; stir-fried noodles at a Moscow Uzbek restaurant; and hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) from the Crimean Tatars.

2. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

3. Rice noodle soup (pho) in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

4. Stir-fried rice noodles (char kway teow), white curry noodles, vermicelli soup (mee sua kor), and Indian-style stir-fried noodles (mee goreng mamak) in Penang, Malaysia; and boiled noodle dish (mee rebus) in Malacca.

5. Fish cake noodles in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

6. Korean-style black bean noodles (jjajangmyeon) in Seoul, South Korea.

7. Curry noodles (khao soi) and cold rice noodles in Chiang Mai, Thailand.

1. Russia

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) at the historic mosque in the Tatar community of Moscow.

In the early 17th century, as the Romanov dynasty was established, Moscow became prosperous again, and many Tatars from the Volga River and steppe regions came here to trade. The Tatar community officially formed south of the Moskva River, across from the Kremlin. The Tatar community mosque dates back to 1712. It has been rebuilt many times. Today, most Muslims who come for Friday namaz are from Central Asia and the Caucasus.

After Friday namaz, I ate hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) at the mosque's restaurant. The atmosphere here is very good and lively.









2. Stir-fried noodles at a Moscow Uzbek restaurant.

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, many Uzbeks have come to Moscow for work. Many became loaders and taxi drivers, and some opened restaurants.

In 1951, the Ministry of Trade of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic decided to open a restaurant called "Uzbekistan." It is now a long-standing Uzbek establishment in Moscow, though it has been transferred to private ownership. I ate stir-fried noodles here.









3. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) of the Crimean Tatars.

Bakhchysarai is the former capital of the Crimean Tatars. Although it became an ordinary town after Russia occupied the Crimean Khanate in 1783, it remains the cultural center of the Crimean Tatars and preserves their unique culture and customs.

In May 1944, the Soviet Union deported all 240,000 Crimean Tatars from the Crimean Peninsula to Uzbekistan and other remote regions. The Crimean Tatars learned to make hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) while in exile in Uzbekistan, and today it has become a part of their food culture.

I stayed at a very beautiful traditional Crimean Tatar house called Bahitgul Boutique-Hotel. They serve traditional Crimean Tatar food, and I ordered hand-pulled noodles (lagman) for my first meal.









2. Uzbekistan

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) in Tashkent.

The grandmother where we stayed highly recommended this noodle shop called Lagman House. It is not far from our place or Chorsu Bazaar. The shop is very clean, and the meat in the mixed noodles is delicious.









3. Vietnam

1. Pho in Ho Chi Minh City

During the French colonial period in Vietnam, many Cham Muslims from Cambodia moved to the Mekong Delta because of the relatively loose autonomy policy for the Cham people. Saigon Green House is the best Cham Muslim restaurant in Ho Chi Minh City, and it has a rich variety of delicious food.

I ate Vietnamese rice noodle soup (pho) with Thai basil here. Vietnamese rice noodle soup (pho) appeared in northern Vietnam in the early 20th century, but it was not very popular in Saigon until the 1950s. After Vietnam was divided into north and south in 1954, over a million people moved from the north to the south. Pho became popular in Saigon and developed a unique flavor different from the north.







Al Rahim mosque is the first mosque in Saigon, built by Malay and Indonesian Muslims in 1885. Every morning until noon, there is a small noodle shop run by Cham Muslims at the entrance of the mosque.













Jamiul Anwar mosque was built with aid from Malaysia in 1968, and currently, 240 Cham Muslims pray here. On the way to the mosque, there is a halal snack shop where I ate duck glass noodles.















The Cham Muslims here live together with the Kinh people and Chinese people, and everyone gets along very harmoniously.





4. Malaysia

1. Penang's stir-fried rice noodles (char kway teow), white curry noodles, wheat noodle soup (mee sua kor), and Indian stir-fried noodles (mee goreng mamak).

Bee Hwa Cafe in Penang attracts many Malay people because it uses halal ingredients. We ate the classic Malaysian Chinese dishes, stir-fried rice noodles (char kway teow) and white curry noodles (curry mee), at their place.







Stir-fried rice noodles (char kway teow) is a representative delicacy of Penang Chinese, similar to the Cantonese dish stir-fried beef rice noodles (gan chao niu he). Although it originated from their hometown in Chaozhou, it developed a local style after being passed down for several generations. Penang's stir-fried rice noodles (char kway teow) are relatively wide and thick, seasoned mainly with fish sauce and soy sauce, so the color is lighter. It also contains shrimp, fish balls, crab sticks, bean sprouts, chives, and eggs. Because this shop is halal, it does not use lard or Chinese sausage.



The white curry noodles are made with coconut milk and curry. They are slightly spicy and include shrimp, fried tofu, eggs, wood ear mushrooms, and mint leaves. You can choose the noodles yourself, and we chose half yellow noodles and half rice vermicelli.



Restoran Haji Sharin Low Grand is the largest Chinese Muslim restaurant chain in Southeast Asia, with over 17 branches in Malaysia and Indonesia. The main store is in Kuala Lumpur, and the founder is Chinese Muslim Tuan Haji Sharin Low. This shop in Penang serves local Nyonya-style dishes alongside Teochew and Minnan recipes. We had the Minnan-style vermicelli soup (mianxianhu) here.







I ate fried noodles (mee goreng) with squid (sotong) at a mamak stall in the Sri Weld Food Court in Penang.

Sri Weld Food Court is a Chinese-dominated food center. Seeni Mohamed Sheik Abidin's mamak stall is the only South Indian-run stand there. Seeni has helped his grandfather sell fried noodles since he was a child. His noodles are famous for their sweet, sour, and spicy sauce, and the marinated squid must sit for a full day to soak up the flavor.









2. Malacca's boiled noodle soup (mee rebus)

I had boiled noodle soup (mee rebus) at a Malay snack shop in Malacca. Boiled noodle soup (mee rebus) is popular in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore. It is made with yellow egg noodles or Hokkien noodles (Hokkien mee) and served in a slightly sweet, spicy curry broth. The soup can include ingredients like eggs, shrimp, potatoes, lime, green onions, celery, green peppers, fried tofu, and bean sprouts.







5. Indonesia

1. Yogyakarta's fish cake noodles

At a small shop in Yogyakarta that specializes in fish cakes, I ordered fish cake noodles (mie laksan). The fish cakes were stuffed with fish tofu.









6. South Korea

1. Seoul's Korean-style black bean noodles

In 1952, the U. S. military stationed on the Korean Peninsula officially established its headquarters in Yongsan, which became the United States Forces Korea headquarters after 1957. To meet the daily needs of the large number of U. S. troops, various foreign restaurants and bars began to appear in Itaewon, not far east of the Yongsan base. Muslims also started coming to Itaewon to open halal restaurants.

Although Itaewon has many Middle Eastern, Indian, and Turkish halal restaurants, the most unique ones are the halal Korean restaurants, and Makan is the most famous among them. to the main shop south of the mosque, Makan has another location west of the mosque that specializes in Korean-style fried chicken and black bean noodles. The chef is an older man, and it is part of the same business. The taste of Korean-style black bean noodles is different from Beijing-style black bean noodles, and the noodles are a bit like udon.











7. Thailand

1. Chiang Mai's curry noodles (khao soi)

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, King Rama V of Thailand promoted economic development and needed a large labor force, so many Hui Muslim caravans from Yunnan came to Chiang Mai. In 1904, Zheng Chonglin, a Hui Muslim caravan merchant from Yuxi, Yunnan, and a descendant of Zheng He, built his own large caravan inn in the east of Chiang Mai city, which became the base for Yunnan caravans in Chiang Mai. Many Hui Muslim caravan members from Yunnan came to live near the inn, and the Wang He community began to form.

There are several halal restaurants run by Yunnan Hui Muslims on Wang He Street. I ate the famous Northern Thai curry noodles (khao soi) at this shop, KAO SOI FUENG FAH. People say these noodles were brought to Northern Thailand by people from Yunnan. The soup noodles are slightly spicy and topped with fried dough twists (sanzi), raw onions, and lemon. They taste pretty good.













2. Cold rice noodles (migan) from Chiang Mai.

I visited a Thai restaurant in the Chang Khlan Muslim community in Chiang Mai and ordered their signature Sukhothai-style cold rice noodles (migan). Thai-speaking Muslims who have integrated through generations of intermarriage live here.









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Reposted from the web

Summary: Xinjiang Home Cooking Guide: Zainab’s Halal Recipes and Uyghur Food is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Author: Zainab. The account keeps its focus on Xinjiang Food, Halal Recipes, Uyghur Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Author: Zainab

As a girl from Urumqi, I often cook Xinjiang home-style dishes. I have put together some simple recipes to share with everyone.

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi)

2. Lamb chop pilaf (yangpai zhuafan)

3. Minced meat pilaf (suirou zhuafan)

4. Uzbek black pilaf (Uzbek hei zhuafan)

5. Braised lamb bone (hongshao yangbanggu)

6. Braised beef steak (hongshao niupai)

7. Big plate chicken (dapanji)

8. Ashura bean rice (Ashura doudoufan)

9. Awakening of Insects oil tea egg (Jingzhe youcha dan)

10. Starch noodle soup (fentang)

11. Fried starch jelly (zhamenzi)

12. Soup noodles (tangfan)

13. Stir-fried barbecue meat (chao kaorou)

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi)

1. Preparation: One and a half bowls of flour (for three plates of noodles), half a small spoonful of salt, one bowl of water, a large mixing bowl, a large cutting board, and a rolling pin.

2. Start:

(1) Sprinkle: Put the flour into the mixing bowl and sprinkle in the salt.

(2) Swirl: Pour in a little water and use your fingers to swirl the flour that has touched the water until it forms small, loose crumbles.

(3) Gather: Gradually gather the crumbles into a ball. Swirling and gathering happen at the same time until all the crumbles are part of one single dough ball.

(4) Press: Take the dough out of the bowl. Use the heel of your right hand to press forward, pushing the dough against the board while your left hand guides the direction as the dough rolls forward.

(5) Rest: After about 10 presses, the surface should be smooth. Cover the dough with the mixing bowl and let it rest for 10 minutes.

(6) Knead: Repeat the action from step (4) but don't press as hard, or the surface of the dough might break and lose its smoothness. Then repeat step (5).

(7) Rolling: Repeat step (6) two or three times, then roll the dough into a large round flatbread about 1cm thick. Brush it with raw oil, cover it with a basin, and you can go cook your stir-fry.

(8) Cutting, pulling, and stretching: When the stir-fry is almost ready, find a pot for the noodles and boil water. Meanwhile, cut the dough into strips about 1cm wide. Start from one side and pull them forward bit by bit. Once the diameter is halved, fold the noodles once or twice. Use both hands to stretch and slap them against the cutting board to make the noodles thinner and chewier.

(9) Boiling: Drop them into the pot, cook for a while, and take them out. If you are making mixed noodles, rinse them in cold water. If you are serving them with big plate chicken (dapanji), you do not need cold water; just scoop them out and put them directly into the big plate chicken.









2. Lamb chop pilaf (yangpai zhuafan)

I tried an innovative way to make lamb chop pilaf (zhua fan) to save time and make the meat tender.

1. Pressure cook the lamb chops for 10 minutes (I used the rice cooking mode for 10 minutes).

2. Heat oil in a wok (use plenty of oil, about 3-4 times the amount for regular stir-fry). Add onion slices, salt (make it slightly salty), and sugar. Then add half of the carrot strips. Once the carrots shrink, add the pressure-cooked lamb chops and stir for a while.

3. In the pressure cooker, layer from bottom to top: raw carrot strips, rice, and the stir-fried meat and oil mixture. Use the rice cooking mode.







3. Minced meat pilaf (suirou zhuafan)

1. Preparation: Cut the boneless meat into pieces, cut carrots (2) into strips, cut onion (half) into chunks, wash and soak the rice (3/4 bowl for two people), and prepare salt, cumin, and sugar.

2. Start: Heat the oil, add the onion chunks, and stir-fry the meat. Add two spoons of salt and one spoon of cumin until the meat is dry. Add half of the carrot strips (I like to add a little sugar) and stir until they shrink. Pour the other half of the carrot strips, the rice, and the stir-fried meat and oil into the rice cooker. Add water (rice:water and oil = 1:1) and sugar (to make the pilaf shiny), then just steam the rice.









4. Uzbek black pilaf (Uzbek hei zhuafan)

I once made Uzbek black pilaf while working from home during the pandemic. Master Wang said he wanted to eat it, so I tried making it again, though I was a bit rusty:

1. Wash a bowl of rice and let it soak.

2. Heat the oil, add the onion chunks and a whole head of garlic. Once you smell the garlic, take it out and set it aside.

3. Continue to fry the onions until they are dry and dark brown. Stir-fry the meat, then add two spoons of salt and one spoon of cumin.

4. Once the meat is dry, add the carrot strips and stir until they shrink. Pour the stir-fried meat and oil into the rice cooker, add the rice and water (rice:water and oil = 1:1), sprinkle a little more cumin, and place the whole head of garlic you fried earlier on top. Use the rice steaming mode. *Note: Do not use too much oil, or the rice will be undercooked. That happened this time, so I poured out some oil, added half a bowl of water, and ran the rice steaming mode again to get it right.







5. Braised lamb bone (hongshao yangbanggu)

1. Wash 5-6 lamb bone marrow bones and ginger slices. Put them in a pot with half a bowl of water and boil over high heat. Keep stirring and add a spoon of salt during the process until the water boils away.

2. Add a quarter tablespoon of soy sauce and stir well.

3. Add water until the bones are covered. Once it boils, turn to low heat and simmer. Stir occasionally. After about an hour, the water should be boiled away.







6. Braised beef steak (hongshao niupai)

First, blanch the beef ribs. Once they turn white, take them out. Heat oil, add the meat, ginger, a little cinnamon, star anise, and bean paste (doubanjiang). Stir-fry for a while, then add fresh chili peppers. Once the meat has dried out, put it in a pressure cooker and stew for 25 minutes.







7. Big plate chicken (dapanji)

1. Preparation: half a chicken (use a layer hen or free-range chicken (chaiji) for a pressure cooker, or a Sanhuang chicken or broiler for a wok; we used a free-range chicken this time), 2 potatoes cut into chunks, 1 green onion cut into diagonal slices, 10 whole dried chili peppers (lapi-zi), 4 cloves of garlic sliced, sliced ginger, 2 small spoons of salt, 2 small spoons of Sichuan peppercorn powder, 2 small spoons of pepper powder, 1 small bag of tomato paste, 1 spoon of bean paste (doubanjiang), half a spoon of soy sauce, and vinegar.

2. Start: Use plenty of oil. Add the chicken pieces, dried chili peppers, and ginger slices to the wok. Add salt, Sichuan peppercorn powder, pepper powder, tomato paste, a little bit of the green onion and garlic, and the bean paste. Stir-fry until the blood has dried out from the chicken, then add soy sauce and turn off the heat.

3a. If using a layer hen or free-range chicken, use an electric pressure cooker. Add the stir-fried chicken and water (about 4 cooking spoons of water, do not cover the chicken). Place the potato chunks on top. Pressure cook for 15 minutes, then open the lid. Take out the potatoes first, add the remaining green onion and garlic, add a drop of vinegar, stir, and serve.

3b. If using a Sanhuang chicken or broiler, add all the green onion, garlic, water, and potato chunks when adding seasonings in the wok. Cook until the potatoes are soft, add a drop of vinegar, and serve.















8. Ashura bean rice (Ashura doudoufan)

On the 10th day of the first month of the Islamic calendar, Ashura, Hui Muslims have a tradition of making a mixed grain porridge. This commemorates the legend that Prophet Nuh's (Noah) ark docked on Ashura, and he gathered the remaining grains in the cabin to make porridge.

Hui Muslims in different places make Ashura porridge in different ways. In Urumqi, it is also called Ashura bean rice.

When making it, prepare at least 7 types of beans. We prepared 11. Use an electric pressure cooker to cook the beans until soft, then take them out and put them in a wok to stir with rice and glutinous rice. Then, put everything into the electric pressure cooker. Next, stir-fry diced lamb, add salt and Sichuan peppercorns, then add chopped green onion to make it fragrant. Put it all into the pressure cooker and add water until it covers the ingredients by one and a half finger-widths. After cooking and serving, the aroma of the beans mixes with the aroma of the meat. It is both a seasonal delicacy and very meaningful.

We made a simplified version. The truly traditional way is to soak the beans for two days beforehand. When cooking, you don't use a pressure cooker but keep stirring in a wok, which requires a lot of experience.













9. Awakening of Insects oil tea egg (Jingzhe youcha dan)

Before I was 18, as long as I was home during the Awakening of Insects (Jingzhe) solar term, breakfast would always be Jingzhe soup (oil tea egg). You could say it was my first memory of this solar term. I talked to my parents about it a few days ago and revisited the recipe. I didn't have time this morning, so I tried making it tonight and wanted to share it.

(1) Boil an appropriate amount of brick tea (if you don't have it, you can use black tea; today I tried using Pu'er tea).

(2) Beat 2 eggs into a liquid, and add raisins, chopped walnuts, and chopped red dates.

(3) Heat oil in a pot and stir-fry the dried fruits coated in egg liquid.

(4) Pour in the brewed tea and add rock sugar. The older generation would use lamb fat to fry the eggs for their parents' generation. In our generation, it is more common to use vegetable oil to fry the egg liquid coated with green raisins and walnut kernels. Adding a little more rock sugar makes it more popular with children.









10. Starch noodle soup (fentang)

1. First, stir-fry the meat slices, then add garlic, then add green onion, dried chili peppers, and tomatoes (yangshizi), and then add various vegetables. You can choose the vegetables as you like.

2. Add the lamb broth that was stewed and frozen earlier. After the broth melts, add pea flour blocks, then add the large pieces of stewed lamb, and finally add pepper and cilantro to enhance the flavor.

The classic way to eat starch noodle soup (fentang) is with fried dough (youxiang). After you finish the lamb, break the fried dough into the soup. This is the authentic way of life for Hui Muslims in Urumqi.



















11. Fried starch jelly (zhamenzi)

Buy meat at the market and have the butcher grind it into filling (xianzi). The filling for steamed meat loaf (menzi) needs to go through the grinder twice so it is finer than the filling for fried meatballs. Once you get home, steam the filling into a meat loaf (menzi) and slice it up. To cook it, coat the slices in egg and starch, then fry them. Finally, sprinkle on cumin, chili powder, and salt.













12. Soup noodles (tangfan)

1. Stir-fry lamb slices with salt and Sichuan peppercorn powder until they are a bit dry.

2. Sauté chopped green onions and tomato chunks, then add soy sauce.

3. Stir-fry potato slices, then add water after a short while.

4. When the water boils, add garlic slices and hand-tear dough pieces into the soup. Simmer for a bit, then add pepper powder and cilantro. Finish with a splash of vinegar before serving.



13. Stir-fried barbecue meat (chao kaorou)

1. Heat oil in a pot over high heat. Add lamb fat first, then the meat slices. Stir-fry for a while, add a small spoonful of salt for one bowl of meat, and stir.

2. Add one and a half spoonfuls of chili powder.

3. Add one spoonful of cumin powder.



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Reposted from the web

Summary: Xinjiang Home Cooking Guide: Zainab’s Halal Recipes and Uyghur Food is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Author: Zainab. The account keeps its focus on Xinjiang Food, Halal Recipes, Uyghur Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Author: Zainab

As a girl from Urumqi, I often cook Xinjiang home-style dishes. I have put together some simple recipes to share with everyone.

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi)

2. Lamb chop pilaf (yangpai zhuafan)

3. Minced meat pilaf (suirou zhuafan)

4. Uzbek black pilaf (Uzbek hei zhuafan)

5. Braised lamb bone (hongshao yangbanggu)

6. Braised beef steak (hongshao niupai)

7. Big plate chicken (dapanji)

8. Ashura bean rice (Ashura doudoufan)

9. Awakening of Insects oil tea egg (Jingzhe youcha dan)

10. Starch noodle soup (fentang)

11. Fried starch jelly (zhamenzi)

12. Soup noodles (tangfan)

13. Stir-fried barbecue meat (chao kaorou)

1. Hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi)

1. Preparation: One and a half bowls of flour (for three plates of noodles), half a small spoonful of salt, one bowl of water, a large mixing bowl, a large cutting board, and a rolling pin.

2. Start:

(1) Sprinkle: Put the flour into the mixing bowl and sprinkle in the salt.

(2) Swirl: Pour in a little water and use your fingers to swirl the flour that has touched the water until it forms small, loose crumbles.

(3) Gather: Gradually gather the crumbles into a ball. Swirling and gathering happen at the same time until all the crumbles are part of one single dough ball.

(4) Press: Take the dough out of the bowl. Use the heel of your right hand to press forward, pushing the dough against the board while your left hand guides the direction as the dough rolls forward.

(5) Rest: After about 10 presses, the surface should be smooth. Cover the dough with the mixing bowl and let it rest for 10 minutes.

(6) Knead: Repeat the action from step (4) but don't press as hard, or the surface of the dough might break and lose its smoothness. Then repeat step (5).

(7) Rolling: Repeat step (6) two or three times, then roll the dough into a large round flatbread about 1cm thick. Brush it with raw oil, cover it with a basin, and you can go cook your stir-fry.

(8) Cutting, pulling, and stretching: When the stir-fry is almost ready, find a pot for the noodles and boil water. Meanwhile, cut the dough into strips about 1cm wide. Start from one side and pull them forward bit by bit. Once the diameter is halved, fold the noodles once or twice. Use both hands to stretch and slap them against the cutting board to make the noodles thinner and chewier.

(9) Boiling: Drop them into the pot, cook for a while, and take them out. If you are making mixed noodles, rinse them in cold water. If you are serving them with big plate chicken (dapanji), you do not need cold water; just scoop them out and put them directly into the big plate chicken.









2. Lamb chop pilaf (yangpai zhuafan)

I tried an innovative way to make lamb chop pilaf (zhua fan) to save time and make the meat tender.

1. Pressure cook the lamb chops for 10 minutes (I used the rice cooking mode for 10 minutes).

2. Heat oil in a wok (use plenty of oil, about 3-4 times the amount for regular stir-fry). Add onion slices, salt (make it slightly salty), and sugar. Then add half of the carrot strips. Once the carrots shrink, add the pressure-cooked lamb chops and stir for a while.

3. In the pressure cooker, layer from bottom to top: raw carrot strips, rice, and the stir-fried meat and oil mixture. Use the rice cooking mode.







3. Minced meat pilaf (suirou zhuafan)

1. Preparation: Cut the boneless meat into pieces, cut carrots (2) into strips, cut onion (half) into chunks, wash and soak the rice (3/4 bowl for two people), and prepare salt, cumin, and sugar.

2. Start: Heat the oil, add the onion chunks, and stir-fry the meat. Add two spoons of salt and one spoon of cumin until the meat is dry. Add half of the carrot strips (I like to add a little sugar) and stir until they shrink. Pour the other half of the carrot strips, the rice, and the stir-fried meat and oil into the rice cooker. Add water (rice:water and oil = 1:1) and sugar (to make the pilaf shiny), then just steam the rice.









4. Uzbek black pilaf (Uzbek hei zhuafan)

I once made Uzbek black pilaf while working from home during the pandemic. Master Wang said he wanted to eat it, so I tried making it again, though I was a bit rusty:

1. Wash a bowl of rice and let it soak.

2. Heat the oil, add the onion chunks and a whole head of garlic. Once you smell the garlic, take it out and set it aside.

3. Continue to fry the onions until they are dry and dark brown. Stir-fry the meat, then add two spoons of salt and one spoon of cumin.

4. Once the meat is dry, add the carrot strips and stir until they shrink. Pour the stir-fried meat and oil into the rice cooker, add the rice and water (rice:water and oil = 1:1), sprinkle a little more cumin, and place the whole head of garlic you fried earlier on top. Use the rice steaming mode. *Note: Do not use too much oil, or the rice will be undercooked. That happened this time, so I poured out some oil, added half a bowl of water, and ran the rice steaming mode again to get it right.







5. Braised lamb bone (hongshao yangbanggu)

1. Wash 5-6 lamb bone marrow bones and ginger slices. Put them in a pot with half a bowl of water and boil over high heat. Keep stirring and add a spoon of salt during the process until the water boils away.

2. Add a quarter tablespoon of soy sauce and stir well.

3. Add water until the bones are covered. Once it boils, turn to low heat and simmer. Stir occasionally. After about an hour, the water should be boiled away.







6. Braised beef steak (hongshao niupai)

First, blanch the beef ribs. Once they turn white, take them out. Heat oil, add the meat, ginger, a little cinnamon, star anise, and bean paste (doubanjiang). Stir-fry for a while, then add fresh chili peppers. Once the meat has dried out, put it in a pressure cooker and stew for 25 minutes.







7. Big plate chicken (dapanji)

1. Preparation: half a chicken (use a layer hen or free-range chicken (chaiji) for a pressure cooker, or a Sanhuang chicken or broiler for a wok; we used a free-range chicken this time), 2 potatoes cut into chunks, 1 green onion cut into diagonal slices, 10 whole dried chili peppers (lapi-zi), 4 cloves of garlic sliced, sliced ginger, 2 small spoons of salt, 2 small spoons of Sichuan peppercorn powder, 2 small spoons of pepper powder, 1 small bag of tomato paste, 1 spoon of bean paste (doubanjiang), half a spoon of soy sauce, and vinegar.

2. Start: Use plenty of oil. Add the chicken pieces, dried chili peppers, and ginger slices to the wok. Add salt, Sichuan peppercorn powder, pepper powder, tomato paste, a little bit of the green onion and garlic, and the bean paste. Stir-fry until the blood has dried out from the chicken, then add soy sauce and turn off the heat.

3a. If using a layer hen or free-range chicken, use an electric pressure cooker. Add the stir-fried chicken and water (about 4 cooking spoons of water, do not cover the chicken). Place the potato chunks on top. Pressure cook for 15 minutes, then open the lid. Take out the potatoes first, add the remaining green onion and garlic, add a drop of vinegar, stir, and serve.

3b. If using a Sanhuang chicken or broiler, add all the green onion, garlic, water, and potato chunks when adding seasonings in the wok. Cook until the potatoes are soft, add a drop of vinegar, and serve.















8. Ashura bean rice (Ashura doudoufan)

On the 10th day of the first month of the Islamic calendar, Ashura, Hui Muslims have a tradition of making a mixed grain porridge. This commemorates the legend that Prophet Nuh's (Noah) ark docked on Ashura, and he gathered the remaining grains in the cabin to make porridge.

Hui Muslims in different places make Ashura porridge in different ways. In Urumqi, it is also called Ashura bean rice.

When making it, prepare at least 7 types of beans. We prepared 11. Use an electric pressure cooker to cook the beans until soft, then take them out and put them in a wok to stir with rice and glutinous rice. Then, put everything into the electric pressure cooker. Next, stir-fry diced lamb, add salt and Sichuan peppercorns, then add chopped green onion to make it fragrant. Put it all into the pressure cooker and add water until it covers the ingredients by one and a half finger-widths. After cooking and serving, the aroma of the beans mixes with the aroma of the meat. It is both a seasonal delicacy and very meaningful.

We made a simplified version. The truly traditional way is to soak the beans for two days beforehand. When cooking, you don't use a pressure cooker but keep stirring in a wok, which requires a lot of experience.













9. Awakening of Insects oil tea egg (Jingzhe youcha dan)

Before I was 18, as long as I was home during the Awakening of Insects (Jingzhe) solar term, breakfast would always be Jingzhe soup (oil tea egg). You could say it was my first memory of this solar term. I talked to my parents about it a few days ago and revisited the recipe. I didn't have time this morning, so I tried making it tonight and wanted to share it.

(1) Boil an appropriate amount of brick tea (if you don't have it, you can use black tea; today I tried using Pu'er tea).

(2) Beat 2 eggs into a liquid, and add raisins, chopped walnuts, and chopped red dates.

(3) Heat oil in a pot and stir-fry the dried fruits coated in egg liquid.

(4) Pour in the brewed tea and add rock sugar. The older generation would use lamb fat to fry the eggs for their parents' generation. In our generation, it is more common to use vegetable oil to fry the egg liquid coated with green raisins and walnut kernels. Adding a little more rock sugar makes it more popular with children.









10. Starch noodle soup (fentang)

1. First, stir-fry the meat slices, then add garlic, then add green onion, dried chili peppers, and tomatoes (yangshizi), and then add various vegetables. You can choose the vegetables as you like.

2. Add the lamb broth that was stewed and frozen earlier. After the broth melts, add pea flour blocks, then add the large pieces of stewed lamb, and finally add pepper and cilantro to enhance the flavor.

The classic way to eat starch noodle soup (fentang) is with fried dough (youxiang). After you finish the lamb, break the fried dough into the soup. This is the authentic way of life for Hui Muslims in Urumqi.



















11. Fried starch jelly (zhamenzi)

Buy meat at the market and have the butcher grind it into filling (xianzi). The filling for steamed meat loaf (menzi) needs to go through the grinder twice so it is finer than the filling for fried meatballs. Once you get home, steam the filling into a meat loaf (menzi) and slice it up. To cook it, coat the slices in egg and starch, then fry them. Finally, sprinkle on cumin, chili powder, and salt.













12. Soup noodles (tangfan)

1. Stir-fry lamb slices with salt and Sichuan peppercorn powder until they are a bit dry.

2. Sauté chopped green onions and tomato chunks, then add soy sauce.

3. Stir-fry potato slices, then add water after a short while.

4. When the water boils, add garlic slices and hand-tear dough pieces into the soup. Simmer for a bit, then add pepper powder and cilantro. Finish with a splash of vinegar before serving.



13. Stir-fried barbecue meat (chao kaorou)

1. Heat oil in a pot over high heat. Add lamb fat first, then the meat slices. Stir-fry for a while, add a small spoonful of salt for one bowl of meat, and stir.

2. Add one and a half spoonfuls of chili powder.

3. Add one spoonful of cumin powder.



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Reposted from the web

Summary: Hainan — Muslim History, Mosques and Local Communities is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: The Huihui people are a Muslim ethnic group living in Huicun and Huixin villages in Sanya City, Hainan, numbering nearly 10,000. The account keeps its focus on Hainan Muslims, Muslim History, China Mosques while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.





The Huihui people are a Muslim ethnic group living in Huicun and Huixin villages in Sanya City, Hainan, numbering nearly 10,000. Although classified as Hui, their Huihui language belongs to the Austronesian family, sharing origins with the Cham languages of southern Vietnam. The Huihui people's lifestyle is strongly influenced by the local ethnic groups of Hainan, yet they maintain devout Islamic faith, making them a very unique ethnic group on China's southeastern coast.

Among the Huihui people in Sanya, many legends circulate about their origins, pointing to regions like Arabia, Malaysia, the Western Regions, Annan, and Champa.

A legend recorded in the 1990 article "Hainan Muslims: Then and Now" in "Sanya Culture and History," Volume 2, states that the Huihui people believe they migrated from Arabia to Vietnam and then to Hainan:

"Our ancestors were originally a fishing tribe during the Abbasid Caliphate in Arabia. Due to internal conflict in the country, life became very difficult, so they moved to a place called Annan (present-day Vietnam). Later, a plague broke out, killing many people. They left that place and set sail to find a better land, but unfortunately encountered a typhoon and were scattered to Hainan Island.



In a legend recorded in the 1990 paper "Investigation into the Origin and Ethnic Customs of the Hui Muslims of Sanya, Hainan Island," presented at the Sixth National Symposium on the History of Hui Muslims, the Hui Hui Muslims believe their ancestors moved from the Arab world (Da Shi) to Champa during the Tang Dynasty, and then from Champa to Hainan Island during the Song and Yuan dynasties.

"Our ancestors were originally 'people from the Western Regions.' During the Tang Dynasty, they moved to Champa due to internal strife in the Arab world. Between the Song and Yuan dynasties, they made a living by fishing at sea in Champa. Driven by typhoons, their ships drifted to various coastal areas of Hainan Island, mainly Yazhou, Wanzhou, and Danzhou."



Sanya Bay beach

In 1981, Zheng Yiqing, a scholar from the Institute of Ethnology at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, visited Sanya to study the Hui Hui language. She interviewed elderly Hui Hui people there, who told her that the Hui Hui people came from Malaysia to southern Vietnam to engage in fishing, and were blown to Hainan by a typhoon.

"According to the older generation here, their ancestors first settled in Malaysia, then drifted to southern Vietnam to live and work as fishermen." "Once, they encountered a typhoon, and several boats were blown to the coast of Yaxian County, Hainan Island. One boat capsized, one drifted to the sea off Tiandu (Liupan Commune), one drifted to the sea off Sanya, and one drifted to the sea off Yacheng."



Sanya Bay beach

An article from 1986, "The Origin and Characteristics of the Hui Muslims of Yanglan, Hainan Island" by Jiang Yongxing and Mei Weilan, mentions local accounts stating they came from Champa in Vietnam. They say a typhoon brought them to Hainan during the Song Dynasty.

"Our original home is Champa in Vietnam. Our ancestors made a living by fishing at sea. Forced by a typhoon, our boats drifted to various coastal areas of Hainan Island, mainly Yacheng and Wanning, with some reaching Dan County (all coastal counties on Hainan Island, with Sanya and Dan County facing Champa across the sea). This was about seven or eight hundred years ago, during the Song Dynasty."



So, where did the Huihui people really come from? Are they descendants of the Champa people? Let's first sort through historical records to see what we can find.

I. The Origin of Muslims in Hainan

1. Arab and Persian Merchant Ships in the Tang Dynasty

The earliest Muslims to arrive in Hainan were Arab and Persian merchants during the Tang Dynasty.

In the later Tang Dynasty, the overland Silk Road gradually became blocked. Meanwhile, the maritime Silk Road continued to thrive, boosted by advances in navigation and shipbuilding. Many Arab and Persian merchant ships sailed the Indian Ocean to trade in cities like Guangzhou, Quanzhou, and Yangzhou. Carried by the north-bound monsoon winds in the South China Sea, these Persian and Arab ships often sailed close to the coast of Hainan Island. Both the "Vast Records of the Taiping Era" and the "Tang Monk Jianzhen's Eastern Voyage" (also known as "The Biography of Monk Jianzhen") mention local pirates robbing these ships.

The "Vast Records of the Taiping Era," Volume 286, tells of the great pirate Chen Zhenwu in Zhenzhou (present-day Sanya, Hainan) during the Tang Dynasty, who became a millionaire by plundering Persian merchant ships. The text states: "This began with merchant ships from the Western Regions that were wrecked and drifted ashore."

The "Tang Monk Jianzhen's Eastern Voyage" records that the great pirate Feng Ruofang in Wan'an Prefecture (present-day Wanning City in southeastern Hainan) captured Persian merchant ships. He seized a large number of Persians: "Each year, he would capture two or three Persian ships, stealing their cargo and taking people as slaves. The area where these slaves lived stretched three days' journey north to south and five days' journey east to west, with villages close to one another."

But currently, there's no direct evidence showing that Muslims in Hainan are descendants of Arab and Persian sea merchants from the Tang Dynasty.

2. Arab merchants from Champa who settled in Danzhou during the Northern Song Dynasty.

The earliest clear record in historical texts about the origin of Muslims in Hainan comes from the History of Song, Volume 489, under the section on Champa. It states: 'In the third year of the Yongxi reign (986 AD), officials in Danzhou reported that a Champa man named Pu Luo'e, pressured by Jiaozhou, led his clan of over a hundred people to seek refuge.'

Danzhou is located in the northwestern part of Hainan Island. Jiaozhou, also known as Jiaozhi, was the Song Dynasty's name for northern Vietnam. The surname Pu was a common Han Chinese surname used by Muslims along the southeastern coast during the Song and Yuan dynasties. It's thought to come from 'Abu,' a prefix in Arabic names.

The most famous Muslim with the surname Pu was Pu Shougeng, a major sea merchant in Quanzhou during the late Song and early Yuan periods. Also, Yue Fei's grandson, the Southern Song writer Yue Ke, came to Guangzhou with his father when he was 10 years old (in 1192). He met a group of Arab merchants surnamed Pu who had moved from Champa to Guangzhou. He recorded this in detail in his book "Tang Shi," Volume 11, "Foreigners of Panyu by the Sea." The "Bai Fan" (White Foreigners) mentioned here refers to Arabs and Persians.

"Panyu is home to various foreign peoples living together by the sea. The most prominent among them are surnamed Pu, known as 'Bai Fan' people. They were originally nobles from Champa." "After sailing at sea and encountering storms, they feared returning. So, they petitioned their ruler, wishing to stay in China to help trade."

The Huaisheng Mosque was the center of Guangzhou's "foreign quarter" at that time.





The reason Pu Luo'e led his clan from Champa to Danzhou in Hainan in 986 was due to a significant war in Vietnamese history. Starting in the 10th century, the Yue state in northern Vietnam began attacking Champa in the south. In 982, the Early Lê dynasty of Vietnam destroyed Champa's capital, Indrapura (near present-day Da Nang), scattering many Chams.



Champa, also translated as Zhanpo, was a state founded by the Cham people in southern Vietnam in 192 CE. Early Champa was strongly influenced by India, believing in Brahmanism and practicing the caste system.

Because its land was long and narrow and fragmented, Champa mainly developed maritime trade, becoming an important transit point on the Maritime Silk Road during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Both Chinese merchant ships departing from Guangzhou and Quanzhou, and Arab and Persian merchant ships from the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf coasts, chose to stop in Champa. Therefore, many Arab and Persian merchants lived as expatriates in Champa during the Song and Yuan dynasties.

Two Kufic tombstones written in Arabic were excavated in Phan Thiet and Phan Rang cities in southeastern Vietnam. The first is the tombstone of a road worker named Abu Kamil, who passed away on November 20, 1039. The other is a notice about how local Muslims got along with the indigenous people, written in a mix of Kufic and Naskh scripts. It is thought to have been carved between 1025 and 1035. The inscription suggests that Arab and Turkish merchants lived here in a community.

From the 10th to the 13th centuries, Champa was still mainly Brahmanist, with Muslims being mostly Arab expatriates. The kingdom of Champa sent envoys to China multiple times between the 10th and 12th centuries. Many of these envoys had names that can be traced to Arabic transliterations.

The book Taiping Huanyu Ji, written during the Song Dynasty's Taiping Xingguo era (976-983), has an entry on Champa that records the first Champa envoy during the Five Dynasties period:

"In the fifth year of Xiande (958), its king, Sri Indravarman, sent his minister, Puo Hesan, to present local products. Among them were fifteen glass bottles of rosewater, said to come from the Western Regions... He also presented eighty-four glass bottles of naphtha, an oil that burns more intensely when it meets water, which their country uses in naval battles."

The envoy Puo Hesan's name can be translated as Abu Hasan. This rosewater was recorded in the Song Dynasty book Zhufanzhi as floral water from the land of Dashi (Arabia), and naphtha refers to petroleum.

During the Song Dynasty, Champa sent envoys even more frequently. According to the Song Shi, Volume 489, the Champa entry, in 961, Puo Hesan again brought rhinoceros horn, ivory, camphor, spices, peacocks, and Dashi bottles, all goods from the Maritime Silk Road.

In 1053, "its envoy, Pu Sima Ying, came to present local products." The name Pu Si Ma can be translated as Abu Ismail.

In 1056, envoys were sent to offer local products. The name Pu Xi Tuo Pa can be translated as Abu Hittabah.

In 1068, envoys were sent to pay tribute. The name Pu Ma Wu can be translated as Abu Mahmud.

In 1155, Pu Weng Du Gang, Pu Weng Tuan, and others also came to pay tribute. They were likely Arab merchants too.

Today, the surname Pu is still a major surname among the Hui Muslims.

Besides official delegations, more Arab merchants from Champa came to the Song Dynasty to do business. Wang Yucheng, a literary scholar from the Northern Song Dynasty, wrote in the

It wasn't until the 14th-15th centuries, after the Malays converted to Islam, that the Champa people gradually began to adopt Islam under Malay influence. Therefore, the early Champa immigrants with the surname Pu who came to Hainan might have been Arab expatriates.

3. Arab merchants from the Northern Song Dynasty who immigrated to Yazhou

In 1022, Ding Wei, the prime minister of the Northern Song Dynasty, was dismissed and demoted to Yazhou as an official in charge of household registration. He lived in Yazhou, the southernmost part of Hainan, for three years between 1022 and 1025. During his time in Yazhou, Ding Wei wrote "Tian Xiang Zhuan" about agarwood, which is included in the "Chen Shi Xiang Pu" in the "Siku Quanshu" (Complete Library in Four Sections). The book records that most of the agarwood from Champa at that time was exported to Guangzhou and Arabia. One Arab merchant ship was blown to Yazhou by a hurricane, and the Arab merchants settled there.

Champa produced a great deal of agarwood, which was traded and shipped either to Panyu (Guangzhou) or to Arabia. Precious agarwood is as valuable as gold. The village elders say that in recent years, large foreign ships from the Great Food (Dashi) country have been caught in hurricanes and forced to dock in this neighboring prefecture. The leader, being very wealthy, threw a lavish banquet, boasting extravagantly. The people of the prefecture looked at each other and said, "In terms of wealth, we truly can't compete. But look at their cooking: the smoke from their stoves is thick and unmoving, the food is dry and light, skinny and burnt. It's not delicious." So, they took some wood from the north shore and burned it right there. The smoke rose faintly, as if drawing from the eastern sea. The rich, oily smoke congealed like lacquer, and its fragrance lasted, becoming even better over time. The people on the large ships were defeated by this.



The ancient city of Yazhou is located northwest of Sanya. Map data from Baidu Maps.

4. Champa soldiers who fled to Hainan Island during the Southern Song Dynasty.

In the 13th century, Champa and Zhenla (Cambodia) were locked in years of war. In 1145, Zhenla (Cambodia) captured Champa's capital, Vijaya. But in 1177, Champa's army counterattacked and took Angkor. Zhenla occupied Champa again in 1190 until 1220. During the wars between Champa and Zhenla, some Champa deserters fled to Hainan and were recruited into the Southern Song army.

The famous Southern Song Neo-Confucian scholar Zhen Dexiu (1178-1235) recorded in Volume 47 of his collected works, 'Zhen Wenzhong Gong Wenji,' in the 'Biography of Zhan Gong, Minister of Agriculture and Grand Commander of Huguang,' the deeds of another Southern Song Neo-Confucian scholar, Zhan Tiren (1143-1206). It mentions Champa soldiers fleeing to Hainan during the Champa-Zhenla wars and Zhan Tiren recruiting them. The record states: 'Champa and Zhenla attacked each other, and some soldiers escaped to Qiong and Guan. ' The official mobilized troops and pacified the coastal areas by recruitment.

However, these Champa soldiers were not necessarily all Muslims; they could have been followers of Brahmanism or Buddhism.

5. Champa people settled in Qiongzhou (now Haikou) during the Yuan Dynasty.

In 1279, Champa submitted to the Yuan Dynasty, which sent the Right Chancellor Suo Du to govern Champa. However, Champa rebelled against the Yuan Dynasty again in 1282. So, Suo Du led a large army to conquer the Champa capital and pursued the Champa army deep into the mountains. In 1283, the Yuan army shifted its attack from Champa to Annam (the Trần Dynasty of Vietnam). The King of Champa then pledged allegiance to the Yuan Dynasty, and the war finally ended.

The Ming Dynasty's Zhengde era gazetteer, Qiongtu Zhi, Volume 7, under

Customs, records that during the Yuan Dynasty's war with Champa, some Champa people surrendered and were settled in Haikou Port (now Haikou City) in Qiongzhou County, registered as Southern Fan soldiers, and lived in the Fanmin Suo (foreigners' settlement): "Champa customs. No elders or children were left behind; everyone was given a three-year supply of grain rations. A settlement for the foreign people was established, with the foreign chieftain Malin appointed as the administrator. This position was hereditary, and he was granted a fourth-rank seal and authority.

It's unclear if all these resettled Champa people were Muslims.

6. Champa Muslims who moved to Yazhou (present-day Sanya) between the Song and Yuan dynasties.

Starting in the 10th century, Champa engaged in wars with Dai Viet, Chenla (Cambodia), and the Yuan Dynasty. Many Champa refugees fled by boat to Yazhou in Hainan, which was across the sea. The Ming Dynasty's Zhengde-era "Qiongzhi" (Gazetteer of Qiongzhou), Volume 21, Section on Coastal Defense, records that the journey from Yazhou to Champa took two days by boat, making it very convenient: "Two days south of Yazhou connects to foreign lands of Champa."

According to the Qing Dynasty's Guangxu-era "Yazhouzhi" (Gazetteer of Yazhou), Volume 1, Section on Geography and Territory, Subsection on Customs, Champa Muslims once lived scattered along the coasts of Dadan Port and Suanmei Pu in Yazhou: "The foreign people were originally Hui Muslims from Champa." Between the Song and Yuan dynasties, they came by boat due to unrest and settled along the coasts of Dadan Port and Suanmei Pu.



1. Early Yuan Dynasty Cham Muslims who moved to Wanzhou (present-day Wanning).

Besides Yazhou at the southernmost tip of Hainan Island, Wanzhou in southeastern Hainan was also a place where Cham Muslims relocated to escape war. According to the "Fan Village" section in Volume 9 of the Daoguang Edition of the Wanzhou Gazetteer, Cham people once lived in Fan Village west of Wanzhou city: "The Fan were originally people from ancient Cham. In the early Yuan Dynasty, they encountered chaos and sailed to the coast of the prefecture. They later moved west of the city and called it Fan Village."

Wanzhou is located in Wanning Town, Wanning City, northeast of Sanya City.



The place name Fan Village still exists today, located southwest of Wanning Town.



After Kublai Khan died in the 14th century, Vietnam broke free from the Yuan Dynasty's control and resumed its attacks on Champa. In 1471, Vietnam's Later Lê Dynasty captured Champa's capital, Vijaya. Many Cham people scattered and fled to Cambodia, while the remaining Cham established three small kingdoms: Champa, Nam Phan, and Hoa Anh.

The last records of Cham people arriving in Hainan come from texts like the History of Ming and the Veritable Records of Emperor Chenghua of Ming. When the king of Champa died in 1484, the Later Lê Dynasty unilaterally appointed a Cham minister, Deva Dat, as king. The true heir to the throne, Prince Gu Lai, fled with his followers to Yazhou, Hainan, in 1486. The Chenghua Emperor of the Ming Dynasty sent envoys to Yazhou to recognize Gu Lai as the King of Champa. In 1487, he dispatched a strong military escort to help Gu Lai return to Champa and reclaim his throne with Ming intervention.

8. Muslims Arriving by Land

Besides Muslims from Champa, another group of Muslims in Hainan migrated from the Western Regions by land. According to the Genealogy of the Pu Family of Nanhai Ganjiao, first compiled in 1619 (the 47th year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty), the ancestor of this Pu family was named Ma Qu'a, also known as Runi. He was originally a Uyghur from the Western Regions. After the Rooney family moved inland, they first settled in Shandong. Later, because their son Haida was appointed an official in Guangzhou, the whole family moved to Guangzhou's While living in Guangzhou, the Pu family helped rebuild the Lighthouse Tower of the Huaisheng Mosque.

The Lighthouse Tower of the Huaisheng Mosque was a landmark in Guangzhou's foreign quarter back then.



By the eighth generation of the Pu family in Guangzhou, Pu Qiutao moved to Nanhai County (now Nanhai District, Foshan City) and founded the Ganjiao branch. During the Ming Dynasty, the third-generation granduncle of the Ganjiao branch, Pu Jun, went to Hainan to do business. His son, Pu Yuye, came to Dengzhou in the northwest of Hainan and ran a salt business in Panbu Village, Xinying Town. Pu Yuye had two sons, Pu Xuanfu and Pu Xuanlu. After Pu Yuye passed away, his two sons moved to E'man Township in Dengzhou and founded the Pu family's E'man branch.



The place is now called Eman Town.

Customs of Hui Muslims in Hainan during the Ming and Qing Dynasties

The earliest detailed account of the customs of Cham Muslims in Hainan comes from the "Customs" chapter of the Zhengde Gazetteer of Qiongtái (Zhengde Qiongtái Zhi), compiled in 1521 during the Ming Dynasty. The descriptions are very rich and detailed. This passage states that during the Song and Yuan dynasties, due to warfare, entire families sailed to Hainan Island and settled in coastal areas called 'Fanfang' and 'Fanpu,' not mixing with local residents. Most were surnamed Pu and Fang. The Pu surname remains a major surname among the Hui Muslims of Sanya today, while the Fang surname no longer exists.

Customs, ... Those from other prefectures came with their families by boat during the Song and Yuan periods due to unrest, settling along the coast, referred to as Fanfang and Fanpu. They did not live intermingled with the local people. Most of these people were of the Pu and Fang surnames.

This is a wedding banquet for the Pu family that I encountered in Huixin Village (Fan Village) in Sanya.







This section introduces Islamic beliefs, including not eating pork and fasting during Ramadan. The term 'Buddha hall' (fotang) here refers to a mosque. This custom of calling mosques in Hainan 'Buddha halls' continued even after the Qing Dynasty.

They do not eat pork, and other livestock must be slaughtered while bleeding. They enjoy eating betel nuts. Families do not worship ancestors. Those who can read foreign scripts and are called 'teachers' are given a small stool to place an incense burner on. Each village has one Buddha hall (fotang), where they recite scriptures and pray morning and evening. Every year, they fast for one month. During the fast, they do not swallow saliva. They eat only after seeing the stars and moon. The third day of the month marks the beginning and end of the fast. On the day of breaking the fast, they gather at the Buddha hall (fotang). After reciting scriptures and praying, they visit each other's homes, which is like exchanging New Year's greetings.

The text mentions that 'they love to eat betel nut,' a habit that continues today. Now, Huihui Village is full of betel nut stalls. The first time I saw Huihui people with their mouths full of blood-red betel juice, I was startled.



The white cloth wrapped around the head mentioned below should be the 'dastar.' After death, wrapping the body in cloth and burying it facing west (towards Mecca) is also a typical Islamic burial custom. Finally, it says that the speech and appearance of these people are similar to the 'Huihui.' This is the first time these southern 'foreigners' are compared to the 'Huihui' on the mainland.

'If you often see a respected person, you kneel and let them touch your feet.' If you meet as equals, you each touch each other's hands, then withdraw your hands and touch your own faces. For large gatherings, they sit on the ground in rows. Rice is served on large blue plates, and they eat with their hands. Men do not drink alcohol. When a man turns twenty, he asks a teacher to cut his hair to eyebrow level, wrap his head with a white cloth, and tie a cloth around his waist. Women wear short buns, short tops, and long skirts. They enjoy drinking alcohol and tea.

Outsiders who interact and form relationships with them are called 'zuo qi'. Some even marry them. Depending on wealth, they use gold, silver, copper, or tin rings, piercing their earlobes so the rings hang down to their shoulders. They like to use incense with flowers. They keep their bodies clean, sometimes black and sometimes red. When they die, they do not use coffins. Their bodies are wrapped in cloth and buried facing west. Their language and appearance are similar to the Hui Muslims. Now, they are all incorporated into the territory and collect taxes from fishing.

The 'Gujin Tushu Jicheng: Zhifang Dian' (Collected Works of Past and Present, Treatise on Geography), compiled in 1728, largely continues the records from the 'Qiongtai Zhi' of the Ming Dynasty's Zhengde period. However, by this time, only the Pu surname remained, and the Fang surname had disappeared:

“Most people here have the surname Pu. They do not eat pork. Their homes do not have ancestral shrines. They set up a Buddhist hall together, recite scriptures, and perform prayers.” Their language and appearance are similar to the Hui Muslims. Today, based on local customs, we include maps and information about fishing, education, and property. Marriage is not forbidden between people of the same surname, but it is forbidden between people of the same clan. Fishing customs are part of marriage, and no one else has their own marriage customs.

This volume also describes that houses at that time were mainly thatched huts:

"Dwellings were located near the sea, and we sometimes feared typhoons. Public and private rooms were not very tall or beautiful. Most folk houses used thatched roofs, and official buildings followed this simple style. Those near the sea were often submerged by wind and waves. Those who lived near the Li people also imitated the nests and tree houses of the mountain tribes. Even the homes of gentry were not ornate, prioritizing only completeness and sturdiness."

III. The settlement and assimilation of Hainan's Muslims

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Hainan's Muslims lived scattered along the coast in Danzhou, Qiongshan, Yazhou, Lingshui, and Wanzhou, with the largest population in Yazhou. These areas experienced Sinicization, Li assimilation, and Tanka assimilation during the Ming and Qing dynasties, respectively, until only one Muslim community remained in Fan Village in Sanya.



Base map from "Historical Atlas of China," Qiongzhou Prefecture in 1511.

1. Tanka assimilation of Muslims in Qiongshan County

The Champa people, who were settled in Haikoupu by the Yuan Dynasty and recorded in Volume 7, "Customs," of the Zhengde-era "Qiongtu Zhi" from the Ming Dynasty, were few in number by the end of the Yuan Dynasty due to warfare.

Customs, records that during the Yuan Dynasty's war with Champa, some Champa people surrendered and were settled in Haikou Port (now Haikou City) in Qiongzhou County, registered as Southern Fan soldiers, and lived in the Fanmin Suo (foreigners' settlement): "Champa customs. No elders or children were left behind; everyone was given a three-year supply of grain rations. A settlement for the foreign people was established, with the foreign chieftain Malin appointed as the administrator. This position was hereditary, and he was granted a fourth-rank seal and authority. During the chaos of war at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, few remain today.

The Ming Dynasty's "Qiongtai Annals" from the Zhengtong era, Volume 27, also records that these people had all become Dan people, a group living on the water in Hainan who make their living from fishing:

"In Haikou Port, where the foreign people lived, their leaders were established by soldiers from Southern Fan during the Yuan Dynasty. Their chief, Ma Lin, held a hereditary fourth-rank official seal and managed their foreign soldiers. Today, any descendants who still exist have all become Dan people."

The Sinicization of Wanzhou Muslims

The Kangxi-era Wanzhou Gazetteer, compiled in 1679, records in Volume 3, under 'Local Customs,' that the Champa Muslims of Wanzhou lived in Fan Village, west of the city. The gazetteer's description of Islamic customs largely comes from the Zhengde-era Qiongtu Gazetteer of the Ming Dynasty:

‘The Fan people were originally from Champa. During the chaos of the early Yuan Dynasty, they sailed their boats to the coast of the prefecture and later moved to the west of the city, establishing Fan Village. In the early Ming Dynasty, they were under the jurisdiction of the garrison and worked alongside other residents. Many had the surname Pu and spoke the Fan language. They did not eat pork. When slaughtering animals, they only ate the meat after it had bled. They did not worship ancestors. Those who can read the foreign script are called foreign chiefs. They set up temples to worship foreign gods, chanting scriptures on the first and fifteenth of the month, and bowing with clasped hands. Each month they take turns fasting. Those who are fasting do not let saliva go down their throats, and only eat when they see the stars and moon. Men wrap their heads with plain silk and do not drink alcohol. Women wear their hair in a bun at the back, with short tops and long skirts, and make a living by dyeing indigo with ash. When a daughter is about to marry, relatives and neighbors visit to offer gifts and congratulations, and comfort her by touching her face. There are no coffins in burials. The body is simply wrapped in cloth and buried on its side.

However, the Daoguang edition of the "Wan County Gazetteer" from 1828, in Volume 9, "Ancient Sites," adds a sentence to the "Foreign Village" section, which already quotes the full text from the Kangxi edition:

By this time, their customs had long since become Chinese, matching those of the Central Plains in dress and ceremony.

This shows that as late as the early 19th century, the Champa Muslims in Wanzhou had already assimilated into Han Chinese culture.

A 1951 survey of the Li, Miao, and Hui Muslims of Hainan, compiled by the Guangdong Provincial People's Government Committee for Ethnic Affairs, recorded that Wanzhou's Taiyangpo had a mosque in the 10th year of the Republic of China (1921). It also noted Arabic tombstones still existed there in the 1950s:

The Hui Muslims of Taiyangpo and E'man had completely assimilated into Han Chinese culture by the Guangxu reign (1875-1908). It's said that in the 10th year of the Republic of China (1921), Taiyangpo still had a mosque, and the graves in Taiyangpo and E'man still bear tombstones inscribed with Arabic script.

By the 1980s, when cultural relics workers Pan Xian'e and Li Juli from Sanya Lingshui County investigated Fan Village west of Wancheng, the area was entirely Han Chinese who had migrated from Fujian. Only the Pu Guangmao brothers' family remained of the 'Fan people.' They had been eating pork since their great-grandfather's time and had intermarried with local Han Chinese. The mosque built in earlier years had long since collapsed, and their religious beliefs were the same as the local Han Chinese.

3. The Sinicization of Muslims in Danzhou

The Ming Dynasty's Gazetteer of Danzhou, written in 1618, describes Islamic customs. Its account largely comes from the Zhengde Gazetteer of Qiongtan from the same dynasty, but it also notes that by that time, people were eating pork, except during Ramadan.

The text states: 'These foreigners do not live mixed with the local people, and do not eat pork. For other livestock, they do not need to slaughter it themselves to see the blood.' 'Families do not worship ancestors. Each village shares one prayer hall, where they recite scriptures morning and evening. Each year, they observe a month of fasting in rotation.' 'During the fast, they do not swallow saliva. They only eat after seeing the stars and moon. The fast begins and ends on the third day of the lunar month.' 'On the day of breaking the fast, they gather at the prayer hall for worship and recitation.' 'When someone dies, they do not use a coffin. The body is wrapped in cloth and buried facing west. This is generally similar to the beliefs of the Hui Muslims, referred to as 'Fan' people.' 'Nowadays, they are all registered with the local administration, eat fish and pork, and no longer hold fasting gatherings.'

It is unknown whether the Pu clan of Ouman village in Danzhou still practiced Islam during the Ming Dynasty. A 1951 survey by the Guangdong Provincial People's Government Committee for Ethnic Affairs, titled 'Investigation of the Li, Miao, and Hui Peoples of Hainan, Guangdong,' recorded that by the Guangxu era, Ouman village in Danzhou had been completely sinicized, but still preserved Arabic tombstones.

By the Guangxu Emperor's reign in the Qing Dynasty, the Hui Muslims of Taiyangpo and E'man had been completely sinicized. Tombstones in Taiyangpo and E'man still bear inscriptions in the Hui script.

A small number of the Pu family from E'man also moved into the Huihui village of Suosanya during the Qing Dynasty, becoming part of the present-day Huihui people.

In 1989, Ma Jianzhao from the Guangdong Provincial Institute of Ethnic Minorities and Darrell Du Riel, a visiting scholar from the Chinese University of Hong Kong, went to Dan County to investigate the Pu family of E'man. They published an article titled 'A Survey of the Customs and Culture of the Pu Clan in Dan County, Hainan Island'. The article stated that in 1989, there were 1,461 people in the Pu clan in Dan County. Except for wrapping the deceased in white cloth before burial, they had basically no remaining Islamic beliefs or customs. At that time, there were three ancestral halls in Pucun village in E'man Town. One was the 'Pu Clan Ancestral Hall,' dedicated to the spirit tablet of the first ancestor, Pu Yuanye. The other two were branch ancestral halls: 'Chongqing Tang,' for the descendants of Pu Xuanfu, and 'Longfu Fang,' for the descendants of Pu Xuanlu. Inside, besides ancestral tablets, there were also statues of deities such as 'Tiangang Marshal,' 'Bawang Marshal,' 'Yizhuang Marshal,' and 'Zhuizhu Marshal,' serving as guardians of the ancestors.

The current Shangpu Village was formerly known as Shangpu Village.



In early 1983, a doctor from the Pu family of E'man, who worked in Jiangmen City, Guangdong, obtained a copy of the 'Pu Family Genealogy of Nanhai Ganjiao.' This allowed the Pu clan in Danzhou to rediscover their ancestral origins. In late 1983, the Ouman Pu clan applied to the Guangdong Provincial Ethnic Affairs Commission to change their ethnic status to Hui Muslim. However, because the Ouman Pu clan had completely assimilated into Han Chinese culture, the authorities did not approve the request.

Starting in 1984, over 30 households and more than 100 villagers surnamed Pu from Ouman voluntarily moved to Huihui Village in Sanya. The local Huihui people helped them build homes and provided land for them to farm. However, after arriving in Huihui Village, the Ouman Pu clan could not adapt to the Huihui custom of not drinking alcohol or eating pork. After more than a month, some of them went to nearby Han Chinese villages to drink alcohol and eat pork. A year later, all of them left Huihui Village and returned to Danzhou.

4. Muslim Ancient Tombs in Tufu Bay, Lingshui

In 1976, Li Juli, a cultural relics worker from Lingshui County, discovered 53 ancient tombs on a sandy beach stretching 2.5 kilometers long and 40-60 meters wide, from Fanling Slope in Tengqiao Township, Sanya, to Tufu Bay Village in Lingshui. This discovery marked the beginning of the large-scale uncovering of ancient Muslim tombs in Sanya.

In 1978, archaeologists from the Guangdong Provincial Museum and the Hainan Island Cultural Management Committee excavated three Muslim tombstones carved with Arabic script on a beach called "Songlu" at the eastern foot of Fanling. Two of these are now in the Lingshui County Museum, and the other is in the Guangdong Provincial Museum.

In 1982, a joint archaeological team from the Guangdong Provincial Museum and the Hainan Island Cultural Management Office unearthed three more Arabic tombstones on Songlu Beach. At the same time, another ancient cemetery at Gan Jiaopo, 1 kilometer west of Tufuwan Village, was discovered. Seven tombs were excavated, each with an Arabic tombstone. The archaeological team left the tombstones in place and took rubbings of the inscriptions.

In December 1983, a joint investigation team from the Guangdong Provincial Political Consultative Conference's Ethnic and Religious Group and the Guangdong Provincial Ethnic Research Society rediscovered six Arabic tombstones and two tombstones with floral patterns on Songlu Beach.

By this time, three ancient Muslim cemeteries had been found in the Tufuwan area, bordering Sanya and Lingshui: Fanlingpo, Gan Jiaopo, and Tufuwan.

Approximate location of the ancient cemetery at Fanlingpo, Tengqiao Township:



On December 30, 2017, I traveled by car from Sanya to Fanlingpo in Tufuwan. First, I took a car to the Sanya International Duty-Free Shopping Complex, then took a taxi to the Renaissance Sanya Resort. I walked through the hotel to the beach and then walked southwest along the beach.



In March 1986, cultural relics workers Pan Xian'e and Li Juri from Lingshui County, Sanya, along with Yin Caike, an official from the Yingzhou Town Cultural Station, discovered two sites on a sandy dune cliff on the south side of Fanling Slope. These sites, located about 30 meters from the sea and 20 meters above it, were identified by Wang Hengjie, an associate professor in the History Department at the Central Institute for Nationalities. Local fishermen had long spoken of them, and Wang Hengjie confirmed they were the remains of "Fan people's" fortresses and living areas. Excavations yielded green bricks, roof tiles, and numerous ceramic shards from the Han, Tang, and Song dynasties. Sanya cultural relics workers also found Song dynasty copper coins and pottery fragments on the barren slopes near Fanling.



Sandy dune cliff:







Walk a short distance west along the beach, and you'll find a hidden entrance leading to a forest path.





Follow the path north to its end, and you'll see a sign marking the cultural relics.





Continue west, and you'll spot the 2016 marker for the Tengqiao Cemetery, a nationally protected key cultural heritage site.



Go further west, and you'll reach the only well-preserved ancient Muslim cemetery in the Tengqiao Fanling Slope area of Tufu Bay.









These graves are all vertical pit graves, with no side panels, cover boards, or any burial objects. The graves face north to south, with the deceased lying on their side in a flexed position, facing the holy city of Mecca to the west. In front of and behind each tomb, a coral stone tombstone was erected. The inscriptions were written in Arabic or Persian. However, most of the inscriptions on the tombstones currently at the original sites have weathered away and are no longer visible. Tombstones with clear inscriptions have been moved to museums at various levels in Hainan Province.











These tombs differ quite a bit from the Song and Yuan Dynasty Muslim tombs found in places like Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Hangzhou, and Yangzhou. The tombs in the aforementioned areas all have side panels and cover boards. Most of these cover boards have multiple layers of tomb lids, and they all have single tombstones, with no double tombstones. The Muslim ancient tombstones in Quanzhou are mostly made of diabase and granite. Those in Yangzhou often use shale, and those in Guangzhou use granite and shale. Only Hainan uses locally produced coral stone. This is because the Sanya and Lingshui areas are rich in coral stone. About 5 to 6 kilometers east of Fanling, at Juntunpo, there are over 100 Tang Dynasty coral stone sarcophagus tomb clusters. In the area of Houchangpo Daogangmen in Lingshui County, there are also many ancient Li ethnic group tombstones made of coral stone.













Wild watermelon vines on the ground.



In 1987, Li Juli and Wang Kerong published an article titled "Muslim Tombs Discovered in Lingshui and Sanya: Reflections on the Activities of Ancient Muslims on Hainan Island" in the inaugural issue of the "Journal of the Ethnography Museum of Hainan Autonomous Prefecture." The article documented the styles of some of the tombstones. The years these tombstones were unearthed come from the article "A Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island" by Chen Dasheng and Claudine S. Sulmon, published in "Hui Studies" in 1993.

The tombstones facing northwest in the double tomb settings mostly have a raised top with five or more peaks. The center of the tombstone's header features a full moon, with Arabic script inside, mostly the Quranic verse 55:26: 'Everything on earth will perish.'

Below the full moon is an indented frame, with a flower carved at each end. Inside the frame are inscriptions in Arabic and Persian. Most of these inscriptions are weathered and hard to make out. The dates only show the month and day, with no tombstone recording the year. Tomb owners' names identified from the inscriptions include Atw, Haatuun, Naamu Hasan, and Samaa ibn Isma'ill. Among these, Atw (meaning 'majestic'), Haatuun (meaning 'lady'), and Naamu (meaning 'famous') all come from Persian. Additionally, some tombstones have Quranic verses 55:26 and 55:27 carved inside the indented frame: 'Everything on earth will perish.' But the face of your Lord, full of majesty and bounty, will endure.' Below the frame, a serrated band or cloud patterns are carved.

In their article 'A Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island,' Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon interpret the floral patterns as star shapes.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Inside it is Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish. Below the moon is a relief carving of curling cloud patterns. Under that is a recessed frame with a flower carved at each end, and inside the frame is an Arabic and Persian inscription: This is the grave of the elder Atwa, written in Persian, who died on an auspicious day in Ramadan.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

This stele is now kept at the Hainan Provincial Ethnic Museum in Wuzhishan City. The photo comes from Ma Mingjun’s blog Hui Muslims as One of Hainan Province’s Three Long-Established Ethnic Groups: Tang-Dynasty Islamic Scripture Coral Gravestones Unearthed in Fenghuang Town, Sanya!



The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Inside it is Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish. Below the moon is a recessed frame with one flower carved at each end. Inside the frame is an Arabic inscription: This is the grave of... son, Saman Heni... during Ramadan. A band of zigzag patterns is carved below the frame.

In Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon’s Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island, the name of the deceased is translated as the famous Hasan.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1982 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head, but the inscription inside it has weathered away. Below the moon is a recessed frame with one flower carved at each end. Inside the frame are fragments from Qur’an 55:26 and 55:27: Everything on earth will perish. Only the Face of your Lord, full of majesty and honor, will remain.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Inside it is Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish. Below the moon is a recessed frame with one flower carved at each end. Inside the frame is an Arabic inscription:... Aismar... died on an auspicious day in Ramadan. A band of zigzag patterns is carved below the frame.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1978 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Inside it is Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish. Below the moon is a recessed frame with one flower carved at each end. Arabic is carved inside the frame, but it has already weathered away. Cloud patterns are carved below the frame.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. There is a full moon in the center of the stele head, but the inscription inside it has weathered away. Below the moon is a recessed frame with one flower carved at each end. Arabic is carved inside the frame, but it is now hard to read.

In Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon’s Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island, the lower inscription is translated as Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1982 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Inside it is Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1978 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Inside it is the shahada: There is no deity but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. Below it, a three-branched tree of life is carved on each side, with flowers blooming on the branches. Below that is a recessed frame. Inside it are Qur’an 55:26 and 55:27: Everything on earth will perish. Only the Face of your Lord, full of majesty and honor, will remain.





From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was unearthed in 1978 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Arabic is carved inside it, but it is hard to read. Trees of life are carved on both sides of the moon. Below it is a recessed frame, with one flower on the right side. Arabic is carved inside the frame, but the inscription is hard to read.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A mountain-shaped panel is carved in the center of the stele head, with Arabic inside it. Below it is a recessed frame with one flower carved at each end, and Arabic inside the frame has already weathered away.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1978 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. The upper part of the stele head shows a full moon set off by curved radiating lines. Inside it is Qur’an 55:26: Everything on earth will perish. Below the moon is a recessed frame, with a flower carved on the left end. Inside the frame is an Arabic inscription: This is the grave of... during a fasting day.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1982 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. A full moon is carved in the center of the stele head. Arabic is carved inside it, but it is hard to read. A recessed frame is carved below it, with Arabic inside: This is the grave of a martyr. His name was Ibn Sayyid Wanersheng. He died in December. May Allah have mercy on this lonely man.

In Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon’s Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island, the deceased is translated as Ding Sama ibn Ismail.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. The stele is badly weathered and unclear. Only a recessed frame remains, with Arabic carved inside: This grave is only his final resting place.

In Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon’s Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island, the inscription is translated as: This is the grave of... Khatun...



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. Only a recessed frame and the flower on the right remain. Arabic is carved inside the frame:... died on a certain day of a certain month.

In Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon’s Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island, the flower is interpreted as a seven-pointed star.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

Among the paired steles, the one facing southeast has a tree of life carved on its head.

The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery and belongs to the same grave as the first stele mentioned above. Its head is carved with a tree of life full of branches, with curling cloud shapes at the branch tips and a zigzag band below.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

This stele is now kept at the Hainan Provincial Ethnic Museum in Wuzhishan City. The photo comes from Ma Mingjun’s blog Hui Muslims as One of Hainan Province’s Three Long-Established Ethnic Groups: Tang-Dynasty Islamic Scripture Coral Gravestones Unearthed in Fenghuang Town, Sanya!



The stele in the photo below was found in 1983 at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery. It faces southeast, and its surface has a relief carving of a tree of life with full branches and five flowers.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

Besides the steles found at the Fanlingpo ancient cemetery, another stele was found in 1982 at the Ganjiaopo ancient cemetery. This northwest-facing stele is quite different in form from the earlier ones and is less weathered, so it should be later than the steles above. The stele head has a mountain-shaped top, with straight sides and a flat bottom. The face of the stele has a rectangular frame bordered by zigzag patterns. Inside the frame are five lines of Arabic, of which only parts can be read:... Islam... Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah... prophet... Paradise. Three Arabic letters are carved separately below, and their meaning is unclear.

In Chen Dasheng and Claudine Salmon’s Study of Muslim Cemeteries on Hainan Island, the inscription is translated as:... Islam is our religion... Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah... Paradise... Madajia.



From Hainan Islamic Culture.

According to Li Juli and Wang Kerong in their 1987 article Ancient Muslim Activity on Hainan Island Seen Through Muslim Tombs Found in Lingshui and Sanya, Muslim tombs of this form had only been found at the ruins of the ancient city of Dhofar on the southern coast of Oman.

the sultan royal cemetery beside the Old Friday Mosque, or Hukuru Miskiiy Mosque, built in 1656 in Male, the capital of the Maldives, also has coral-stone graves with paired steles.



From the Tripadvisor user MarcoJust_Do_It.



From the Tripadvisor user KurniawanAdhi.

Five-peaked stele heads are often seen on Song and Yuan Muslim gravestones in Quanzhou. Below are Song and Yuan Muslim gravestones I photographed at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum.





Qur’an 55:26, the verse most often found on Sanya Muslim gravestones, says: Everything on earth will perish. Qur’an 55:27 says: Only the Face of your Lord, full of majesty and honor, will remain. These verses can also be seen in Song and Yuan Muslim tombs in Quanzhou.

The photo below shows a Yuan Dynasty Muslim gravestone I photographed at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum. It was unearthed in 1959 at Xiawei Village, Jintoupu, outside Tonghuai Gate in Quanzhou, and its inscription includes these two verses.



The diabase Sumeru-base-style tombstone at the upper right of the photo below was dug up in the late Qing period from the garden of a Pu family in Quanzhou. After it was moved into Qingjing Mosque, it was built into the north wall of the Mingshan Hall, and it was removed during the halls 1983 renovation. The inscription contains an excerpt from Qur’an 29:57 and the full text of Qur’an 55:26:

Every soul shall taste death.

Everything on earth will perish.



5. The Li Assimilation of Lingshui Muslims

In the 1980s, cultural heritage workers Pan Xiane and Li Juli from Lingshui County, Sanya, went to Jiabu Village in Yingzhou Town, Lingshui County, to investigate. Jiabu Village originally had 31 Pu-surname households. Later, because of an internal dispute, 17 of them changed their surname to Fu, a major Li surname.

The Pu families in Jiabu Village are divided into two branches. The first branch says its ancestors were seven brothers who crossed the sea from Champa to Hainan for trade and met a typhoon. One brother settled in present-day Wenchang City, one settled at Luobidong in Sanya City, and the other five settled in Yazhou. Later, among the seven brothers, some became rich and some became poor. One brother in Yazhou ran to Jiabu Village because of debt and worked as a long-term laborer for a landlord. The landlord arranged for him to marry a Li woman, and they had descendants. The second branch first lived at Luobidong in Sanya, later moved to Qingtian Village in Linwang Town, and finally settled in Jiabu Village.

Today, both the Pu and Fu families in Jiabu Village call themselves Lao Li, the same self-name used by Li-assimilated Han people nearby.

Jiabu Village is the settlement of Champa descendants closest to the Fanlingpo Muslim ancient cemetery.



6. The Distribution of Muslim Communities in Yazhou

In December 1983, a joint investigation team formed by the ethnic and religious group of the Guangdong Provincial CPPCC and the Guangdong Society for Ethnic Studies, guided by Lingshui County official Sun Bolin, found a Muslim ancient cemetery on a beach near Suanmei Village in Yacheng. Local people called the place Fanfangyuan, also known as Barenjiaopo. The Guangxu-period Yazhou Gazetteer records that Cham Muslims who migrated during the Song and Yuan periods once lived here.



The Barenjiaopo ancient cemetery was still called foreigner graves in the 1950s. It once had hundreds of coral-stone Muslim gravestones, but after the 1950s most were burned into lime or used by villagers as building material. The investigation team found only one Arabic-inscribed gravestone in the retaining wall of a new grave.

The top of this stele rises into five peaks. The upper half has a carved border, and inside it curling cloud patterns set off a full moon. An inscription is carved inside the frame, but only Allah... Allah... can be read. On both sides of the moon are symmetrical long-life bird patterns made from Arabic script. The pattern on the right contains the shahada: There is no deity but Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. The script in the pattern on the left is hard to read. Below the curling cloud pattern is a recessed frame divided into three sections. Arabic is carved inside, but only the word Allah can be read.



This stele is now kept at the Hainan Museum. The museum website includes a photo.



Compared with the Muslim gravestones at Tufuwan in Lingshui, this stele is less weathered, so it should be later. Its patterns are also quite different from the Lingshui Muslim gravestones. The absence of flower motifs in the inscription is similar to Song and Yuan Muslim gravestones in Quanzhou.

Between 1983 and 1987, another ancient cemetery site was found on the beach one kilometer east of Dadan Port. Local residents called it Fanduifen. Volume 27 of the Ming Zhengde-period Qiongtai Gazetteer, completed in 1521, records a mosque in Fan Village three li south of Yacheng. This Fan Village was near Dadan Port: Fotang Mosque is in Fan Village, three li south of Yazhou. Its hall system, ritual recitation, and prayers are the same as those of a mosque.

According to volume 6 of the Ming Zhengde-period Qiongtai Gazetteer, Dadan Port had long been an important trade pier: It is three li southwest of the prefecture seat and leads into Dadan Liyong Ward. Merchants moored their boats here.



Huangliu Village, 120 li west of Yazhou, had a place called Fanrentang. The Ming Wanli-period Qiongzhou Prefecture Gazetteer records: Fanrentang is in Huangliu Village, 120 li west of Yazhou.

The 1951 Survey of the Li, Miao, and Hui Peoples of Hainan, Guangdong, compiled by the Ethnic Affairs Committee of the Guangdong Provincial Peoples Government, records that the Muslims of Huangliu later moved to Taizao in Yazhou: One branch at Huangliu was neither near the sea nor had farmland, so it moved again to Taizao in Ya County.



Volume 1 of the Guangxu-period Yazhou Gazetteer gives a very detailed record of Yazhou Muslims in its customs section. It mentions building mosques, wearing white clothes and white caps, reciting scripture and praying, going to Mecca for Hajj, fasting in Ramadan, and celebrating the end of the fast, all typical Islamic customs.

They were originally surnamed Pu, but many have since changed their surnames. They do not eat pork, do not make offerings to ancestors, and do not worship spirits. They only build mosques. They wear white clothes and white caps, recite scripture and pray, and keep their faith until death without changing. For weddings, funerals, illness, and other major events, they gather people to recite scripture. Those who can travel west to Tianfang and visit the mosque and tomb of the founder of the religion are admired by everyone when they return. At the beginning of the year, every three years they move back by one month. When they see the new moon at the start of this month, they begin fasting. On the day after seeing the new moon at the start of the next month, they end the fast and treat it as New Year. They fish and farm widely for their livelihood. In marriage, they do not avoid the same surname, but they do avoid the same clan. They do not marry Han people, and others do not marry them either.

Four: Hainan Muslims Registered Under Suo Sanyali — The Formation of the Huihui People Collapse Read »

Reposted from the web

Summary: Quanzhou Baiqi — Guo Hui Muslims and Islamic History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Over 10,000 Hui Muslims with the surname Guo live in Baizaki Hui Township, 12 kilometers east of Quanzhou city. The account keeps its focus on Quanzhou Muslims, Guo Hui Muslims, Islamic History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Over 10,000 Hui Muslims with the surname Guo live in Baizaki Hui Township, 12 kilometers east of Quanzhou city. They are known as "Baiqi Guo" or "Jiuxiang Guo." The name "Jiuxiang Guo" comes from the nine villages where the Guo clan has lived since the Qing Dynasty: Baiqi, Xiadai, Daishang (also known as Liandai), Tiancen (also known as Tianyin), Lichun, Dashan, Hecuo, Shandou, and Houhai. The Guo clan also lives in five other villages: Kepu, Doumentou, Liangmu, Houtang, and Jiakeng.

In local gazetteers and clan genealogies from the Ming and Qing dynasties, Baiqi was referred to by three written variants of the same place name. After 1949, the area was uniformly called Baiqi. In August 1990, when the Hui Township was established, its name changed to Baizaki.



Part 1: History Before the Yuan Dynasty

The various genealogies of the Guo clan in Baiqi have vague and contradictory records about their life before settling there. These records likely include some embellishments and made-up stories. But by looking closely at these genealogies and checking them against the history of that time, we can still make a reasonable guess. Two valuable studies are 'Several Issues in the Early History of Baiqi Hui Muslims' by Professor Shi Yilong from Xiamen University, and 'Origins of the Guo Surname in Baiqi and Madrasa Education' by Professor Wu Youxiong from Quanzhou Normal University.

Were their ancestors Prince of Fenyang Guo Ziyi?

The Guo family of Baiqi claims Prince of Fenyang Guo Ziyi as their ancestor. This claim appears in the At this time, only a few decades had passed since the Guo family settled in Baiqi.

Although they claim Guo Ziyi as an ancestor, the Guo family genealogy does not provide reliable lineage evidence. It only states: "

Since the Song and Yuan dynasties, compiling family genealogies gradually became a key part of Confucian ethics and clan cohesion. More and more private family genealogies were created. After the Ming Dynasty, many ordinary families' genealogies also began to use a grander format. These genealogies traced back dozens of generations, often listing ancestors who were ancient emperors, from prominent lineages, or held high official ranks. Guo Ziyi was enshrined in the Ming Dynasty's Temple of Emperors and Kings in 1388 (the 21st year of Hongwu). He was listed as a meritorious official from ancient and modern times. Guo Ziyi was an important famous person with the surname Guo, and many Guo family genealogies from the Ming and Qing dynasties claimed him as an ancestor. Coincidentally, another branch of Guo Hui Muslims lives in Guocuo Village, Quangang District, 70 li northeast of Baiqi Hui Township. They have no direct connection with the Baiqi Guo clan, but they also claim Guo Ziyi as their ancestor.

2. Were their ancestors Han Chinese who converted to Islam?

If Guo Ziyi is their ancestor, then the question of why they, as Han Chinese, believe in Islam needs to be answered. In the Guo Zhaofen said that among the Guo clan, there were two theories: "following the mother's religion" and "originally Hui." He found both unreasonable, so he proposed a third theory: "adapting to Hui." This means the Guo ancestors had close ties with Muslims and then converted to Islam.

The "adapting to Hui" theory is quite reasonable. The Baiqi Guo clan did not face the same challenges as other Semu people during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. They lived peacefully. Soon after arriving in Baiqi, they built an ancestral temple (jiamiao) and compiled a family genealogy (jiapu). We will talk more about these later.

3. The Guo Clan's Founding Ancestor in Quanzhou

According to clan records, the Guo family once lived in Guojia Village, Fuyang, Hangzhou, and came to Quanzhou during the Yuan Dynasty. There are two theories about the earliest ancestor of the Guo family to arrive in Quanzhou. The mainstream theory names Guo Deguang (from

Genealogies that record Guo Zhang as the founding ancestor in Quanzhou state, and Records mention "Dezhao Gong's branch in Xingzhai, Dongjie, and other places." This means Guo Zhangsheng had two brothers, Guo Deguang and Guo Dezhao. Guo Deguang's descendants lived on Fashi Shitou Street and in Baiqi. Guo Dezhao's descendants lived in Xingzhai Village and on Quanzhou Dongjie. This theory connects the Guo clan of Baiqi with the Jundong Guo clan, who live in Quanzhou's Xingzhai Hui Muslim Village.

Thousands of Guo-surname Hui Muslims live in Xingzhai Hui Muslim Village and other areas in Luojiang District, east of Quanzhou city. Their family genealogies state in the preface: "First ancestor Tong, courtesy name Mengliang, sobriquet Leqiao Chushi." A person from Fuyang, Zhejiang, came to Quanzhou in the late Yuan Dynasty, following a commissioner. He enjoyed the beautiful scenery of Quanzhou and settled there. Because Guo Mengliang lived on Dongjie Street in Quanzhou, his descendants became known as the Jun Dong Guo clan. Later, Guo Mengliang's fifth-generation descendants, Guo Yuan and Guo Quan, moved to Xingzhai during the Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty. After that, they spread to various other places.

The "Quanzhou Prefecture Gazetteer" also has a record about Guo Mengliang, the first ancestor of the Jun Dong Guo clan: "Guo Tong, courtesy name Mengliang, alias Leqiao, was originally from Fuyang, Zhejiang." It also says, "In the late Yuan Dynasty, he followed his ancestor Qin, who served as Quanzhou Salt Commissioner." Additionally, the epitaph of Guo Mengliang's wife, Ms. He, records: "She married Guo Mengliang from the same village. Guo, from Fuyang, Zhejiang, served his ancestor Qin, who came to Fujian as an official in the late Yuan Dynasty." "

This states that Guo Mengliang came to Quanzhou from Fuyang, following his ancestor "Qin." The founding ancestor of the Baiqi Guo clan, Guo Deguang, was named "Qin." The Baqi Guo Family Genealogy records: "His official name was Qin, his courtesy name was Deguan. He was a descendant from Guojia Village, Fuyang, Zhejiang." In the local gazetteer, "congzu" refers to a grandfather's brother. So, Guo Mengliang was likely a junior relative of Guo Dezhao. He came to Quanzhou from Fuyang, Zhejiang, with Guo Deguan.

The "Qishan Guo Family Genealogy Preface" of the Baiqi Guo clan states that Guo Deguan first lived outside Xingchun Gate in Quanzhou. He later moved to Fashi. Xingchun Gate was the east gate of Quanzhou's inner city during the Tang Dynasty. After the Yuan Dynasty, it became part of the city. Its location is in the middle section of Quanzhou's East Street. This was exactly where Guo Mengliang, the ancestor of the Guodong Guo clan, lived.

Based on current documents, it is inferred that Guo Deguan and his junior relative Guo Mengliang likely came one after another from Guojia Village, Fuyang, Zhejiang, to settle on Quanzhou's East Street.

4. Guo Deguan Living in Fashi

Fashi Village is on the north bank of the Jinjiang River, in the eastern suburbs of Quanzhou city. It was an important commercial pier for Quanzhou Port during the Song and Yuan dynasties. During the Yuan Dynasty, from Meishan to Bantou in Fashi, there was a stone street several li long along the river. In 1346, Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta came to Quanzhou Port. He wrote in *Ibn Battuta's Travels*: "The city's port is one of the world's great ports, perhaps even the largest." We saw about a hundred large ships anchored in the harbor, and countless smaller boats. This port is a huge bay that extends inland, meeting a large river. "

The Jiangkou Pier of Fashi Port is located where the river meets the sea at the end of Shitou Street in Fashi Village. It was a trade hub during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Jiangkou Pier once had eight ferry crossings, but today only Meishan Ferry Pier and Wenxing Ferry Pier remain.

Due to years of silt accumulation, the riverbed rose and formed an islet. Then, real estate development happened. The river's surface no longer looks as it did back then.



Meishan Ferry Pier is built with granite. The existing upper layer was built in modern times. The lower layer shows different periods from the Song to Qing dynasties, built one on top of another, mostly using a header-stretcher bond method.









The Wenxing Ferry Terminal was also built with granite, mainly using staggered joint masonry. The visible remaining section is nearly 20 meters long; the rest has sunk into the river.





Fashi was an important trading port in Quanzhou. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, many Muslim merchants from Arabia and Persia lived there. Even after the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Jin, Xia, and Guo families of Hui Muslims still lived in the area. In 1959, the Quanzhou Maritime Museum's investigation team found several Islamic stone tombs, built in the Sumeru pedestal style, at the "West Cemetery" on Jincuo Mountain in Meishan, Fashi.



5. Guo Deguang's Tombstone – Was the Guo family from Persia?

In 1956, villagers from Shitou Street in Fashi Village were leveling land at a place commonly known as "Liugongqi." They dug up a very large "foreign guest tomb" and turned the area into a garden. Villagers said this tomb had a large square stone platform, divided into upper and lower levels. Each level had two Islamic stone tombs in the Sumeru pedestal style. At the head of the upper level was a tombstone. Villagers broke it into two pieces and carried it back to the village to pave the floor of the collective warehouse.

The Quanzhou Maritime Museum has a Yuan Dynasty Sumeru pedestal-style Islamic stone tomb. The two stone tombs built by Liu Gong might have a similar design.



In 1959 and 1974, an investigation team from the Quanzhou Maritime Museum followed clues from the



The upper right corner of this tombstone has The upper left corner has Below that,

The Chinese characters on the tombstone are easy to explain, but interpreting the Arabic text is very difficult. In the early 1980s, the view of Chen Dasheng, director of the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, became widely accepted. He interpreted the Arabic text as

Professor Wu Youxiong of Quanzhou Normal University offered a completely different interpretation in his work "The Origin of the Guo Clan in Baiqi and Madrasa Education." Wu Youxiong consulted the director of the Arabic department at China National Radio. He then concluded that the inscription was Minnan dialect, spelled in Arabic script, reading "Yin Go Zi Ta-gag Mou." This translates to "Yuan Dynasty Guo Deguan's Tomb." Previous interpreters didn't know Minnan dialect, so they couldn't translate it. There is no evidence that the Guo clan came from Persia.

The method of writing Chinese with Arabic script is called Xiaoerjing or Xiaoerjin, and it is also known as Xiaojing. It was used to annotate Islamic texts during study. The Guo clan genealogy records show that Guo Deguan's tomb was rebuilt many times. This tombstone was likely re-erected during the Qing Dynasty by Guo descendants who were Muslim. The experience of the Guo descendants restarting madrasa education during the Qing Dynasty will be discussed in detail later.

Two: Settling in Baiqi in the Early Ming Dynasty.

One: Did they move to Baiqi to escape ethnic unrest at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and early Ming Dynasty?

Guo Deguan's grandson, Guo Zhongyuan, moved from Fashi to Baiqipu, across from Houzhu Port, during the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty. This area then became the current Baiqi Hui Muslim Township. Many studies say Guo Zhongyuan moved because of wars at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and the oppression of Semu people in the early Ming Dynasty. But is that really true?

Between 1357 and 1366, the Ispah Rebellion (Yisibaxi Zhanluan) broke out in Quanzhou. It was organized by Persian Semu people. This caused unprecedented disaster and severe destruction in Quanzhou. After the war, Quanzhou saw a wave of anti-Semu sentiment. Many Semu people were killed in revenge. The "History of the Jin Clan Genealogy of Qingyuan" (Qingyuan Jinshi Zupu Lishi) records: "In this conflict, all people from the Western Regions were wiped out. Those with foreign hair and high noses were mistakenly killed. The gates were closed, and executions continued for three days." Many surviving "foreigners" (fanren) in Quanzhou fled the city to find refuge.

Based on genealogical records, Guo Deguang was likely born around 1283-1303 and died around 1367-1387. Guo Deguang's later years were the peak of anti-Semu sentiment in Quanzhou. However, genealogies generally record that Guo Deguang "registered his household in Fashi by custom in the early Hongwu period." The "Preface to the Qishan Family Genealogy" (Qishan Jiapu Bixu) gives more detail: "In the ninth year of Hongwu (1376), he registered his household by custom and settled in Fashi." 1376 was the second year the Ming army controlled Quanzhou. After the Ming Dynasty took control of Quanzhou, they began to reorganize household registration. Guo Deguang's family was registered into the Ming Dynasty's household system at this time.

Guo Deguang lived in Fashi until he died "of illness." He was buried in Fashi after his death. Guo Deguang's son, Guo Zihong, lived for 49 years and died in 1366. He never left Fashi his whole life and was buried there after his death. His wife, Lady Weng, died in 1372 and was also buried in Fashi. The Potting Genealogy also records that Guo Shiquan, the eldest son of Guo Jiyuan (Guo Zihong's third son who stayed in Fashi), passed the provincial examination in 1411 and became a county official. The record states: "In the ninth year of Yongle (1411), he passed the provincial examination and served in the county, choosing to register in Jiangyou." This shows that Guo Shiquan received at least a stable education at that time.

It seems the Guo Deguang family not only survived the Ispah Rebellion and the subsequent massacres of Semu people without any record of suffering, but they were also registered in the household census after the Ming Dynasty took Quanzhou. Later, they even educated their descendants to become officials through imperial examinations.

2. Reasons for Guo Zhongyuan's Relocation

Let's look at why Guo Zhongyuan moved to Baiqi. The "Biography of Lord Zhongyuan" in the Baiqi Guo Clan Genealogy states that Guo Zhongyuan "accumulated wealth bit by bit and achieved success." He then "chose a place to build a house under Qishan Mountain in the 23rd Dudu of the county." This means Guo Zhongyuan accumulated some capital and decided to start a business elsewhere. The "Preface to the Baiqi Guo Clan Genealogy" also records: "Lord Zhongyuan had five sons and loved the joy of mountains and rivers. He chose a place under Qishan Mountain by the sea in Huiyi, built a house, and lived there." Neither record mentions war or fleeing.

From Guo Deguang onwards, several generations of the Guo family had a custom: the eldest son would go out to establish a new branch, while the youngest son stayed at the old family home. Guo Mengliang, a descendant of Guo Deguang and his younger brother Guo Dezhao, first lived on East Street in Quanzhou. Later, Guo Deguang founded a new settlement in Fashi, and Guo Mengliang stayed on East Street. Guo Deguang had one son, Guo Zihong. Guo Zihong's three sons were: the eldest, Guo Qinggong, who moved to Jiangxi; the second, Guo Zhongyuan, who founded a new branch in Baiqi; and only the third, Guo Jiyuan, who stayed in Poting, Fashi. Guo Zhongyuan originally lived in Daishang (Liandai) in Baiqipu. His four sons also followed this pattern: the eldest son lived in Baiqi, the second son lived in Lichun, the third son went to Zhangzhou, and only the fourth son stayed in Daishang (Liandai). Therefore, Guo Zhongyuan's move from Fashi to Baiqi was likely a result of the common "tree branching out" phenomenon seen in clan societies.

After the turmoil at the end of the Yuan Dynasty and beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Quanzhou's maritime trade was severely damaged. The prosperity of Fashi Port was gone. After the Ming Dynasty began, maritime bans were issued six times during the Hongwu reign. The "Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty" states that "coastal residents were forbidden from privately communicating with foreign countries," "the use of foreign incense and goods by the populace was prohibited," and "not a single plank was allowed to go to sea." It is very likely that the Guo family shifted from commerce to agriculture during this period. Guo Zhongyuan and his eldest brother successively went out to make a living. The eldest brother went far to Jiangxi, and the second brother moved to the opposite bank of Houzhu Port. Only the youngest brother stayed behind to look after the ancestral home and graves, and manage ancestral worship.

Shi Yilong's study, 'A Preliminary Study on the Evolution and Causes of Religious Beliefs of the Hui Muslims in Chendai,' points out that the Ding clan of Chendai, another group of Hui Muslims in Quanzhou, also did not suffer oppression from the Semu people during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties. They moved mainly because the early Ming dynasty banned sea trade, which made them shift from business to farming. So, the early Ming dynasty's ban on maritime trade was likely the main reason Guo Zhongyuan came to Baiqi.

3. Baiqipu in the early Ming Dynasty

Baiqipu is on the east side of the Luoyang River mouth in Quanzhou Bay. It sits across the river from Houzhu Port in Quanzhou. The area has large bay tidal flats and few people. Around Baiqipu, eight Han Chinese families lived: Zheng, Liang, Sun, Chen, Li, Yang, Jiang, Fu, and He. All were newcomers who moved from other places at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. There were no local prominent families. Far across the way is Quanzhou Houzhu Port.



After Guo Zhongyuan arrived at Baiqipu, he settled down to farm. The family genealogy Family Genealogy Doubts: Ancestral Land and House Deeds records: In the 14th year of Hongwu (1381), funds were prepared to purchase Sunfu Daitian, or the Sun family reclaimed land, located in Baiqi and other places in the 23rd du of Hui-an. It carried more than 1,000 shi in rent, and part of the autumn grain tax record is illegible. Here, "Sunfu Daitian" refers to the Sun family who lived at the foot of Longtou Mountain at that time. This is today's Daishang (Liandai) Village, and it is also where Guo Zhongyuan lived.



Guo Zhongyuan also built roads. His family genealogy, "Biography of Zhongyuan Gong," states that he "personally laid 300 li (steps) of stone roads for travelers." The Qiaowei stone bridge road was still in good condition in the 1960s.

The Guo family genealogy, "Preface to Re-adhering to Islam," says that Guo Zhongyuan built a mosque in Baiqi. He also collected many Islamic scriptures. The text states: "Since our ancestor settled in Baiqi, he kept thirty volumes of heavenly scriptures, founded a mosque, respected the teachings, and based his life on Allah."

However, Guo descendants who re-embraced Islam during the Qing Dynasty wrote this, and no earlier historical records confirm it.

4. Baiqi Stone Pavilion

The Baiqi Stone Pavilion (Baiqi shiting) was first known as Qiaowei Pavilion. People say Guo Zhongyuan built it during the Ming Dynasty's Hongwu era. It served as a resting pavilion at the Baiqi ferry crossing and is made entirely of granite. The pavilion's roof is umbrella-shaped, and its base is square. The pillars are in two layers: four inner pillars and twelve outer pillars. Together, they form two squares that look like the Chinese character "hui".











Legend has it that in 1417, during his fifth voyage to the Western Seas, Zheng He met Guo Zhongyuan at the Qingjing Mosque. Zheng He was invited to Baiqi, and Guo Zhongyuan welcomed him at the stone pavilion. This is why it's also called Jieguaan Pavilion, or "Welcoming Official Pavilion". But no documents record this event.

The stone pavilion was rebuilt twice during the Qianlong and Guangxu eras. A stele from its 1771 reconstruction (the 36th year of Qianlong) still stands today.



The Baiqi Stone Pavilion appeared in "China Tourism" magazine in November 1986. Back then, people still lived inside it. The pavilion's current look comes from its 2005 reconstruction.



5. Tomb of Guo Zhongyuan and His Wife

Guo Zhongyuan died in 1422 at the age of 75. His wife, Lady Chen, died in 1433 at the age of 82. They are buried at the foot of Longtoushan (Dragon Head Mountain), east of Xiadai Village. People commonly call it the "Stone Lion Cemetery".



The tomb of Guo Zhongyuan and his wife is a classic Song-Yuan Quanzhou Muslim Sumeru-pedestal style stone tomb (xumizuo shi mu). The Guo family called these tombs, which have a stone lid on a stone base, "Jiaomu" (religious tombs). They were also known as "Gaozai Mu" (cake-like tombs), representing Islam.





The stone tomb is made from granite, which is common in Quanzhou, and has five layers. The first layer has carvings of six-legged and ruyi patterns. The second layer shows continuous floral branches. The third layer features inverted lotus petals. On the fourth layer, the Chen family tomb on the left has carvings of lotus flowers and branches. The Guo Zhongyuan tomb on the right has Arabic inscriptions from Quran Chapter 55, verses 26 and 27:

Everything on Earth will perish; Only the essence of your Lord, full of majesty and honor, will remain forever.





This verse appears often on the tomb covers of Song and Yuan dynasty Muslim tombs in Quanzhou. It is also the most common carving on ancient Muslim tombs in Sanya.

A tombstone from the Quanzhou Maritime Museum collection has Quran Chapter 55, verses 26 and 27 inscribed on it:



Two stone tombs sit side by side on a stone platform. Behind them, a horseshoe-shaped retaining wall holds a cloud-and-moon shaped stone stele in its center. This shape also appears on Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic stone tombs in Quanzhou.



Stone carvings on both sides of the tomb look like stone lions and dragon heads.





Today, you can see many Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tombs similar to Guo Zhongyuan's tomb at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum, Qingjing Mosque, and Lingshan Holy Tomb. After the Ming Dynasty, the Guo clan of Baiqi and the Ding clan of Chendai in Quanzhou continued to use this style. You can also find similar styles in Ming dynasty Islamic tombs in southeastern regions, like the Puhading Cemetery in Yangzhou and Ding Henian's tomb in Hangzhou.

A typical Quanzhou Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb:



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

The Song and Yuan dynasty Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) stone tomb at the Quanzhou Maritime Museum is the most magnificent one found to date.



The Islamic Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb at Quanzhou's Lingshan Holy Tomb.



The Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) style stone tomb of the descendants of Quanzhou's Chendai Ding clan.



By Hangzhou's West Lake is the Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base (xumizuo) for the great poet Ding Henian. He died in 1424, just two years after Guo Zhongyuan.



An Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base in Yangzhou's Puhading Cemetery.



6. The Tomb of Guo Mengwei and His Wife.

Guo Mengwei was the second son of Guo Shichu, Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son. He died in 1480 at the age of 77. His wife, Ms. Huang, died in 1474 at the age of 69. After their deaths, they were buried right next to Guo Zhongyuan's tomb. Their tombs are also Islamic stone tombs with a Sumeru-style base, but they have no carvings. Behind the tomb is a stele commemorating its renovation in 1983.





Guo Mengwei's tomb, as seen in China Tourism magazine in November 1986.



A pair of stone lions stands next to the tombs of Guo Zhongyuan and Guo Mengwei.



7. The Family Tomb of Guo Shiyuan.

Guo Shiyuan was Guo Zhongyuan's second son. He died in 1407 at the age of 34. After his death, he was buried east of Lichun Village, in a place commonly known as the









Guo Shiyuan's tomb is also an Islamic stone tomb with a Sumeru-style base. The front of its lid has an intaglio cloud and moon pattern. The base has continuous branch patterns around its sides.



Next to Guo Shiyuan's tomb are two Islamic stone tombs with a Sumeru-style base. To the east is the tomb of his wife, Ms. Chen. To the west is the tomb of Ms. Zeng, wife of his eldest son, Guo Bangyong. Ms. Chen died in 1457; her stone tomb has no carvings. Ms. Zeng died during the Chenghua reign of the Ming Dynasty (1465-1487); her stone tomb has continuous branch patterns.





Also, behind Guo Shiyuan's tomb are stone tombs of his descendants:

The tomb of Guo Yiqin, Guo Shiyuan's great-grandson (fourth generation), who died in 1504.

This is the tomb of Guo Yiqin's first wife, Ms. Wang. Her death year is unknown. This is the tomb of Guo Yiqin's second wife, Ms. Li. Her death year is unknown. This is the tomb of Guo Xuyuan, Guo Yiqin's eldest son from the fifth generation. He died in 1526. The tomb of Guo Huaiqin, Guo Yiqin's third younger brother from the fourth generation, and his wife, Ms. Hu, was moved here in 1994. This happened because of construction at their original site. Guo Lianfu, from the fifth generation of the Guo family's Xin branch (fifth branch), and his wife, Ms. Pu, were moved here in 1997. This was due to construction at their original site. The gate to Guo Shiyuan Cemetery was closed when I visited. So, I could not see the tombs further inside.

Tomb of Guo Shichu and his wife.

Guo Shichu was Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son. He died in 1448 (the 13th year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) at the age of 79. His wife, Ms. Wu, died in 1439 (the 4th year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) at the age of 57. After they died, they were buried west of Tianyin Village. This place is commonly called the "Eldest Branch Public Cemetery." It is a four-tiered dolerite Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) stone tomb.



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

In the 1970s, during land reclamation work at Baiqi, a granite stone carving was unearthed. It was a waist-section stone from a Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) altar-style stone tomb. Arabic script on it reads: "He - Allah has supreme power, and you will all return to Him."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

A typical Sumeru pedestal (xumizuo) altar-style Islamic stone tomb.



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

It is still unclear if these Islamic tombs were rebuilt by later generations. After the Kangxi Emperor's reign in the Qing Dynasty, the Guo clan of Baiqi once again converted to Islam. Guo Honglong, the first to convert, changed his father Guo Mucheng's Han-style coffin into an Islamic stone tomb. According to the "Genealogy of the Guo Clan's Main Branch":

Lord Mucheng had left the faith earlier. When his son Honglong converted, they renovated the tomb and changed his coffin burial to a Hui Muslim burial. It still looks like a bone tomb today.

Besides this record, no other Muslim stone tombs with a Sumeru pedestal-style tomb base and a tomb cover stone appeared in the Qing Dynasty. Qing Dynasty Muslim tombs changed to use brick or stone construction. The tomb base and cover were made with sanhe ash (a traditional Chinese mortar) to imitate Ming Dynasty tombs.

Three. Clan-ization?

In Professor Wang Ke's 2017 book, "The Vanishing Citizens: Modern China's 'Ethnic' Discourse and the National Identity of Minorities," in the first chapter, "From 'Muslim' to 'Chinese'," Professor Wang Ke introduced us to the Ding clan of Chendai, another large Hui Muslim group in Quanzhou. They achieved "localization" in the Ming Dynasty through "indigenization," "clan-ization," and "imperial examination integration." The Ding clan of Chendai, during their 8th, 9th, and 10th generations, gradually formed strict generational names, compiled genealogies, and achieved great success in the imperial examinations. They eventually stopped believing in Islam.

The Ding clan of Baiqi, however, was very different. Besides the Sumeru pedestal-style stone tombs and descriptions from Qing Dynasty descendants who reconverted about their ancestors' beliefs 400 years ago, the Guo clan of Baiqi in the early Ming Dynasty seemed to have fully integrated into the clan society of the Confucian system in Southern China. This is evident from their ancestral temple and genealogy.

One. Guo Clan Ancestral Temple.

The Guo clan ancestral temple of Baiqi was built by Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son, Guo Shichu, in 1432 (the 7th year of Xuande in the Ming Dynasty). It is commonly known as the "Grand Ancestral Hall" (dacitang). It was originally a "three-bay" traditional Southern Fujian house (dacu). During a renovation in the Qianlong era, it was expanded to a "five-bay" traditional Southern Fujian house (dacu). It was renovated again in 1873 (the 12th year of Tongzhi). In 1898 (the 24th year of Guangxu), the Grand Ancestral Hall (dacitang) was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt with donations from four Guo clan members during the Xuantong era and the early Republic of China period.











Exquisite and intricate Southern Fujian wood carvings.





















In the past, the Baiqi Grand Ancestral Hall (dacitang) enshrined Guo Deguang, Guo Zihong, Guo Zhongyuan and his wife, Guo Zhongyuan's five sons — Guo Shichu, Guo Shiyuan, Guo Shibi, Guo Shimin, Guo Shizhao — and their wives, and 16 ancestral tablets for Guo Mengjun (third generation of the eldest branch) and Guo Mengwei (fourth generation). After renovation in the early Republican era, the ancestral spirit tablets of four donors were also added.



In front of the Guo family temple, there are also the ruins of the 'Wumen' (Meridian Gate).



2. Guo Family Genealogy

Guo Zhongyuan had five sons; four were legitimate, and one was born to a concubine. So, at first, they were divided into four branches: Ren, Yi, Li, and Zhi. Later, Lord Xitian established the fifth branch, Xin. This formed the five major branches of the Baiqi Guo clan: Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, and Xin. Among them, the eldest branch, Guo Shichu, lived in Baiqi. The second branch, Guo Shiyuan, and the fifth branch, Guo Shizhao, lived in Lichun. Later, the second branch expanded to Tiancen (Tianyin), Houhai, Doumentou, Liangmu, Houtang, and Jiakeng. The fifth branch lived in Liangmu. The third branch, Guo Shibi, lived in Shandou. The fourth branch, Guo Shimin, stayed in Daishang (Liandai), where his father lived. Later, the fourth branch expanded to Xiadai, Dashan, and Kepu (Jupu).



The Guo Family Genealogy was first compiled in 1436 (the first year of the Zhengtong reign of the Ming Dynasty) by Guo Zhongyuan's eldest son, Guo Shichu. In 1436, Guo Shichu wrote the 'Preface to the Family Genealogy'. It mentioned: "If we do not clarify the generations, order the seniority, and distinguish closeness here, then as branches multiply and generations pass, will not clan members meet like strangers?" This clearly stated that compiling the genealogy was to strengthen the cohesion of the 'clan'.

The genealogy also includes the 'Family Instructions of Lord Yixuan' left by Guo Zhongyuan before his death in 1422 (the 20th year of the Yongle reign).

All family heads must strictly observe propriety and law. This is to uphold the family's reputation and establish meritorious achievements. Seniority must be respected, and genders kept separate. Brothers and sisters live in peace, and annual sacrifices are abundant and pure. Children and grandchildren are humble and respectful, never lacking in filial piety. Do not get used to idleness; be diligent in your studies. Follow good deeds diligently and aspire to be bright and wise. Relatives have shown kindness, so do not stop giving them gifts and checking in. Servants perform their duties, and you must distinguish between good and bad among them. What is harvested from the fields and gardens, expenses should be kept in check. Neighbors live in harmony; do not deceive or destroy each other. All these points must not be violated. If you do not follow them, it is called evil. When we meet again in the future, even if you regret it, it will be hard to clear your name.

The text mentions These are all typical expressions of a Confucian clan society.



View of Baiqi Village.



View of Xiadai Village.

3. The third-generation ancestral house (zucu) in Kepu Village.

In 2013, the Quanzhou Underwater Archaeology Land Survey Team found an ancestral house (zucu) in Kepu Village, Baiqi Township. It showed an early style of "brick-and-stone construction" (chuzhuanrushi), a unique architectural feature of Southern Fujian. Red tiles and crushed stones filled the gaps between the granite blocks, laid in a staggered vertical pattern.

Elder Guo Jialin, a descendant of the Guo family, said this was the home of Guo Jianping (1419-1487). Guo Jianping was the third-generation ancestor, and the son of Guo Shiming, who was the fourth son of Guo Zhongyuan.







Three. Abandoning the Faith During the Ming Dynasty's Wanli Era.

In 1607, during the 35th year of the Ming Dynasty's Wanli reign, the Guo family stopped practicing Islam.

The Guo family genealogy, "Shi Hui Bian," states: "The family abandoned the faith by the eighth or ninth generation, likely during the Ming Dynasty's Wanli era." The "eighth or ninth generation" here is counted from Guo Deguang. If counted from Guo Zhongyuan, it would be the "sixth or seventh generation." "

The "Guo Shi Ben Fang Ben Zhi Shi Xi" records: "Our family abandoned the faith, likely in the 35th year of the Ming Dynasty's Wanli reign." "

The Guo family genealogy, "Fu Zun Hui Hui Jiao Xu," explains why they abandoned the faith. It says war caused burning and destruction, and they lost their religious leader (zhangjiao). The text states: "Our family respected it for generations, never forgetting it through the ages." "However, after the fifth generation, they suffered from the ravages of war. The religious leadership was lost. This led them to be influenced by other faiths, and they became ignorant of the true teachings."

The war mentioned here was likely the famous "Jiajing Wokou raids" during the Ming Dynasty. The Jiajing Wokou raids started in 1552, the 31st year of the Jiajing reign. Wang Zhi, a merchant from Huizhou, joined forces with pirate groups from Fujian. They led many "Wokou" (Japanese pirates) to invade Zhejiang and Fujian. Volume 384 of the "Veritable Records of Emperor Shizong of Ming" states: "Pirates from Zhangzhou and Quanzhou lured over ten thousand Japanese, who sailed more than a thousand ships..."

In 1556, the 35th year of the Jiajing reign, the "Wokou" attacked Quanzhou. They captured Chongwu City, 20 kilometers east of Baiqi. This city was built to defend against the Wokou. The Quanzhou Garrison Commander died in battle. Huian County was plundered many times. Battles also broke out repeatedly at Yashan, 5 kilometers north of Baiqi.

Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang led their armies to Quanzhou to fight back in 1563, the 42nd year of the Jiajing reign. The "Wokou rebellion" in Quanzhou finally ended in 1569, the 3rd year of the Longqing reign.

At the same time, Quanzhou's other major Hui Muslim clan, the Chencai Ding clan, also stopped practicing Islam. The tenth-generation ancestor of the Ding clan, Ding Yanxia (1516-1597?), recorded in the clan genealogy, "Ancestral Teachings" (Zujiaoshuo), that during his childhood, the Chencai Ding clan still followed Islamic rules. These included namaz, fasting, not eating pork, ritual slaughter, and burial in the ground. But by the late 16th century, when Ding Yanxia wrote his works, the Chencai Ding clan had switched to wooden coffins. They no longer performed namaz, did not fast, did not perform ritual slaughter, and ate pork. After this, many members of the Chencai Ding clan passed the imperial examinations and built many ancestral halls. Islam completely disappeared in the 17th century.

Ding Yanxia's "Discourse on Clan Gathering" (Zongjushuo) from 1562 states that the Chencai Ding clan suffered a severe raid by Japanese pirates (Wokou) in 1561. They had heavy losses. Many Ding clan members moved into the city to escape the disaster. The Chencai Ding clan's eventual abandonment of Islam was likely related to the Jiajing Wokou raids.

Today, the temples of the Chencai Ding clan:



In fact, Islam was in decline throughout Quanzhou between the 16th and 17th centuries. The "Record of the Reconstruction of Qingjing Mosque" (Chongxiu Qingjing Si Beiji) from 1607 states: "Therefore, the Qingjing (Muslim) talk of heaven is not as good as the Buddhist talk of hell. Even those families who once upheld the faith now turn their backs and abandon it. This is why the religion declined and the mosque fell into disrepair. It is due to a gradual loss of direction, not the original intent of the religion!" "

The phrase mentioned here, "Even those families who once upheld the faith now turn their backs and abandon it," most likely refers to the Baiqi Guo clan and the Chencai Ding clan, who had recently left Islam.

Four. Returning to Islam during the Kangxi Reign of the Qing Dynasty.

1. Moving to Qingjing Mosque.

In 1709 (the 48th year of Kangxi's reign), Chen Yougong, the Grand Commandant (Zuodudu) and Regional Commander (Zongbingguan) of Fujian's Ting, Yan, and Shao areas, came to Quanzhou. He revived the faith and started a school at Qingjing Mosque for madrasa education. At that time, Guo Honglong, the eighth-generation member of the fourth branch of the Guo clan, moved from Baiqipu Hecuo to live at Qingjing Mosque. He did this due to "the division of strong trunk and weak branches," a clan internal division. He then converted to Islam. After Honglong converted, more and more Guo clan members who did business in Quanzhou city came to Qingjing Mosque to convert. As the number of converts grew, a mosque was built in Daishang Village, where the fourth branch of the Guo clan lived. This happened with Chen Yougong's support. According to the Fenyang Guo Family Tree of Branches Relocating to Tonghuai Street in Quanzhou:

During the Kangxi Jichou year (1709), Governor Chen Yougong served as a military official in Quanzhou. He re-established the faith. The Baiqi uncle and nephew came to the city to trade, and many people re-entered the faith. Mr. Chen built the Daishang Mosque.

After Guo Honglong entered the faith, most of his descendants moved to live near Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque. Others lived at Daishang Mosque. The Fenyang Guo Family Tree of Branches Relocating to Tonghuai Street in Quanzhou states that during the Qianlong era, Guo Honglong's grandson, Guo Shifu, lived near Quanzhou Qingjing Mosque. Another grandson, Guo Shili, lived at Daishang Mosque. The family genealogy "Biography of Yizhai Gong" records that Guo Shifu, in 1794 (the 59th year of Qianlong), renovated the mosque with Bai Yunhan, the Deputy General of Zhangzhou Left Camp.

Qingjing Mosque was first built in 1009 (the second year of Dazhong Xiangfu in the Northern Song Dynasty). Ahmad from Shiraz, Persia, rebuilt it in 1309 (the second year of Zhida in the Yuan Dynasty). Qingjing Mosque was originally named Ashab Mosque, which means "Mosque of the Holy Companions." The name "Qingjing Mosque" originally belonged to another mosque built in the Southern Song Dynasty, south of Quanzhou city. Later, steles from the original Qingjing Mosque were moved to the Ashab Mosque, causing the names of the two mosques to become confused.

During the Kangxi era, when the Baiqi Guo family re-entered the faith, Qingjing Mosque's main prayer hall, Fengtiantan, had already collapsed from long-term disrepair. Some Muslims, including the Baiqi Guo family, built houses and lived within the Fengtiantan ruins.







In 1936, Imam Zhang Yuguang, a graduate of Chengda Normal School, came to oversee Islamic affairs in Quanzhou. In 1937, he published "Islam's Entry into China and the General Situation of Islam in Quanzhou" in "Yuehua" magazine. He wrote that four Baiqi Guo households still lived inside the Qingjing Mosque's main prayer hall at that time.

This is Qingjing Mosque, as photographed by "China Tourism" in November 1986. The four Baiqi Guo households lived here until they were moved out during the 1986 renovation.



After Fengtiantan collapsed, Mingshantang, on the north side, became the prayer hall. In 1818, it was rebuilt as a traditional courtyard house (siheyuan). In 1871, it was rebuilt again as a small three-room building with Southern Fujian (Min-nan) characteristics. In 1952, it was rebuilt as a simple tiled flat-roof house with a cement and wood frame. In 1998, it was rebuilt to restore its 1871 appearance.





The Guo family genealogy "Preface to Re-adhering to Islam" states that after the Guo family re-entered the faith, over a hundred people joined Islam. This happened under the leadership of the eighth-generation descendant Guo Sizhi and the tenth-generation descendant Guo Zhiquan, and after education from Imams "Master Zhuang" and "Master Ge." Most of these new converts came from the fourth branch, to which Guo Honglong belonged.

The eighth-generation descendant Sizhi Gong, the tenth-generation descendant Zhiquan Gong, and their junior relative Jing Gong, along with several others of their generation, had already received teachings from Master Zhuang. They were then transformed by Master Ge. As a result, over a hundred people in our clan re-adhered to this faith. Master Ge's sincere intention was to feel Allah's great grace. He traced back to the ancestors' tradition of sincere fasting and namaz, and explained the error of raising and eating pigs.

But in 1807 (the 12th year of Jiaqing), Guo Zhaofen also wrote in the family genealogy, in the essay 'On the Renovation of the Yizhai Guo Gong Tomb,' that the Baiqi Guo clan still had not translated Islamic scriptures. He wrote: 'The scriptures compiled by the religion are like a guiding rope, but their sounds and characters are different, and they remain untranslated to this day. Mr. Li Zhongyi appreciated that they were not translated, finding in this the ancient truth.' "

2. Qing Dynasty Islamic Stone Tombs

After the Guo clan Muslims rejoined Islam in the Qing Dynasty, they no longer used the Sumeru pedestal-style stone tombs from the Ming Dynasty. At 'Haitanbian,' west of Houhai Village in Baiqi Township, are the tombs of Guo Shuxian, from the 15th generation, and his three sons. Guo Shuxian died in 1875, at the age of 67. The tomb is a platform made of sanhetu (a traditional Chinese mortar of lime, sand, and clay). On the platform are two sanhetu tombs. A granite carving is set horizontally in front of the tomb table. It has the 'General Creed' of Islam inscribed on it: 'I believe in Allah. He has all noble names and all virtues. I accept all His laws.' "



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."



From the 2005 edition of "Quanzhou Religious Stone Carvings."

Modern tombs of the Baiqi Guo clan near the Lingshan Holy Tomb.





5. Islam and Local Beliefs

1. Regulations Prohibiting Folk Buddhist and Taoist Beliefs

When the Guo clan rejoined Islam in the Qing Dynasty, folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs were already thriving in Baiqi. Because of this, the patriarchs of the four branches of the Guo clan, who followed Islam, tried to regulate customs and curb the growth of folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs.

Guo Zhaofen, a descendant of Guo Honglong, included a series of regulations he wrote to curb Buddhist and Taoist beliefs in the revised 'Guo Clan Genealogy' of 1808 (the 13th year of Jiaqing). These regulations included 4 chapters and 48 articles: 'Listing Warnings to Descendants Against Reckless Talk About Ancestors' Religion,' 'Listing Prohibitions to Instruct Descendants,' 'Listing Items Not Used in Ancestor Worship,' and 'Listing Funeral Regulations and Prohibitions.' These regulations show some aspects of the Baiqi Guo clan's religious beliefs in the early 19th century.

The first chapter, 'Listing Warnings to Descendants Against Reckless Talk About Ancestors' Religion,' explains some misunderstandings that later generations of the Baiqi Guo clan had about Islam. These include:

One rule states,

Another rule is,

A rule says,

The second chapter,

The family must not use merit-making rituals to send spirit money (mingjin), spirit paper (mingzhi), paper effigies (mingren), or any paper offerings to the deceased. "

The family must not use nuns to perform rituals for

The family must not use divine or Buddhist healing methods.

The family must not use popular sorcerers for

The family must not use spirit money (mingjin) or spirit silver (mingyin) after ancestor worship. Guo Zhaofen later added a note,

The family must not use cremation or jar (urn) burial.

The family must not use string puppet shows (xianxi), which are marionette shows. Guo Zhaofen pointed out, "

The third chapter,

Ancestor worship must not use drums or music.

Wear plain clothes for rituals.

For rituals, when slaughtering animals and preparing tools, you must follow religious rules.

For rituals, do not use aquatic animals that do not lay eggs.

For rituals, do not use shellfish or crustaceans.

Do not use pork at home.

Chapter Four, titled 'List of Appropriate Prohibitions for Funeral Systems,' forbids folk Buddhist and Taoist beliefs during funerals. These include:

Do not use drums and music at funerals.

Do not use Taoist or Buddhist guides for funerals.

Do not offer paper money at funerals.

Do not erect banners at funerals, as this has become a bad practice.

2. Islam and Confucianism: Neither Betraying Nor Rigidly Adhering to Faith.

Read the books of sages, learn from their deeds, and neither betray nor rigidly adhere to your faith. Guo Zhaofen quoted this view from Confucian scholar Ding Zishen in the Jiaqing edition of the Qing Dynasty's 'Guo Family Genealogy'. Ding Zishen came from another branch of Hui Muslims in Quanzhou, the Chengdai Ding clan. He was a key figure in the Confucianization of the Chengdai Ding clan during the late Ming Dynasty.

Guo Zhaofen's 'Debate on Adapting to Hui Customs,' written in 1807 (the 12th year of Jiaqing) and found in the 'Guo Family Genealogy,' begins by listing three different religious beliefs. The first type is 'following Confucianism while also incorporating Taoist and Buddhist teachings,' which means Han customs. The second type was "Hui Muslims who also followed the Confucian way," referring to the Jin, Ding, Xia, Ma, and Die families in Quanzhou city who kept their Islamic faith. The third type was "Confucians who kept the Hui Muslim teachings," referring to the Guo clan. From this, we can see that the Baiqi Guo clan at that time already separated themselves from the Muslims in Quanzhou city. They believed they primarily followed Confucianism and kept Islam as a way to preserve their ancestors' customs.

In the four regulations set by Guo Zhaofen, it is also clear that these rules were not just to maintain the Islamic faith itself. They also aimed to make descendants follow their ancestors' religious customs through Confucian thought. The regulations repeatedly stressed that following their ancestors' Islamic customs was to follow the Confucian way:

"Previous generations already experienced this. Later generations of descendants should be warned not to forget family rules and not to bring shame to the Confucian way." "

"All close to Daoist, Buddhist, or evil cults should be completely rejected. The Confucian way should be upheld."

When sacrificing to ancestors, Guo Zhaofen wrote a rule: "Use Confucian rites for sacrifices as well." He later explained, "The pure and true religion (Islam) follows the rites of ancestral worship. But now, our clan first performs ancestral worship and then sacrifices." This further shows how the Baiqi Guo clan in the Qing Dynasty used both Confucianism and Islam.

Six. The Final Disappearance of Islam.

In the late Qing Dynasty, the mosque in Daishang Village collapsed due to long-term disrepair. The mosque then moved to the more remote Dashan Village, where the village's imam, "Uncle Tong," led religious affairs. "Uncle Tong" passed on the role to "Caoniao," who then passed it on to "Uncle Mao." These three generations of imams were all members of the Guo clan from Dashan Village and belonged to the same close family branch. "Uncle Tong" and "Caoniao" both studied at the Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou. "Uncle Mao"'s name was Guo Xingfa. He was an imam trained by the Guo clan themselves.

From the 1930s to the 1940s, Dashan Village had over 30 Muslims. They were mostly clan members from the imam's own family branch, and nearly half of them were women. Every Friday, the Dashan Village Mosque holds Jumu'ah prayer. The imam recites the Quran in Arabic, then preaches Islamic teachings in the Minnan dialect. Whenever they slaughter cattle, they always ask the imam to recite scriptures.

At that time, Muslims in Dashan Village did not know much about Islamic teachings. Some also worshipped folk Buddhist and Taoist deities like Guan Di. The imam did not interfere.

In November 1986, China Tourism magazine photographed a handwritten Quran in Baiqi.



Guo Zhichao's "The Status of Islam in the Cultural Changes of Baiqi Hui Muslims," Guo Qiujun's "Hui'an Hui Muslims - Baiqi Guo," and Ye Wencheng's "Funeral Rites and Characteristics of Hui'an Baiqi Hui Muslims" recorded funeral rituals in Dashan Village during the 1930s and 1940s.

After a person died, their clothes were removed. A white sheet covered the body, which was then ritually cleansed. After the body was washed, male deceased were wrapped in white cloth. Female deceased wore a white long gown with a front opening, a white high-top hat, and white long socks. Three white cloths were used to tie the calves, abdomen, and chest separately. Then the eldest son carried the body to the ancestral hall of their branch, which served as a temporary mourning hall. The mourning bed was made of two long benches and three planks. An incense burner was placed on the mourning table. On both sides, there was a plate with twenty-four pieces of fried oil pastries (youxiang) made from rice flour. Some grieving families also placed a few plates of vegetarian dishes. At this time, the imam wore a blue pointed six-panel hat and a blue long gown. He sat cross-legged facing west on a folding chair in front of the mourning table and began to read the Quran.

Before the funeral procession, the deceased was placed into a temporary coffin (bian'guan). This coffin had wooden sides and a removable bottom. During the funeral procession, the temporary coffin was covered with a coffin shroud. The imam led the way, followed by three children. Four people carried the coffin behind them. Filial sons and daughters, wearing white mourning clothes and white mourning hats, followed. Finally, the mourners, who wore white cloth around their waists or arms (yaobai), followed.

After arriving at the cemetery, spices were sprinkled under the stone coffin. The stone coffin was made of four stone slabs, two long and two short. Its bottom was open to the earth. Four people stood at the four corners of the grave. They pulled open a red carpet to cover the grave. Then the white cloth strips on the deceased are lifted, the bottom board of the simple coffin is pulled out, and the deceased falls into the grave. Five pieces of red earth are placed on the deceased's head, both hands, and both feet. Seven stone slabs (qixingban) are placed on top. Earth is piled on, and some families will later cover it with mortar.

Before the 1940s, many Guo families in Baiqi had the custom of inviting an imam for the deceased. They handled the body and performed a quick burial according to Islamic customs. At that time, Baiqi Village hired Imam Tie Kaichen from Shouxian, Anhui. He mainly led religious ceremonies for funerals and ancestral worship. When Imam Tie was not there, a Guo family member named Guo Xiuye had studied scriptures for a few days with Imam Liu from Tianjin. His family had thirty volumes of Islamic scriptures. Imam Tie passed away during the Anti-Japanese War. From then on, the Guo family in Baiqi only had one imam left, Guo Xingfa. Collapse Read »

Reposted from the web

Summary: Halal Food Guide: Southern China — Rice Noodles, Hui Muslim Food and Local Flavor is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: 5. Beef rice noodles (niurou migan) in Manluanhui, Menghai, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan; bridge-crossing rice noodles (guoqiao mixian) in Mengzi; grass sprout bridge-crossing rice noodles (caoya guoqiao mixian) in Jianshui. The account keeps its focus on Southern China Food, Rice Noodles, Halal Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

1. Hot dry noodles (reganmian) in Jingzhou, Hubei; spicy beef rice noodles (hongyou niurou fen) in Wuhan; and beef noodles (niurou mian) in Xiangyang.

2. Fish maw noodles (yudu mian), beef noodles, smoked fish noodles (xunyu mian), and beef heart noodles (niuxin mian) in Nanjing, Jiangsu; spiced dried tofu noodles (xianggan mian) in Zhenjiang; and wonton noodles (huntun mian) and shredded chicken noodles (jisi mian) in Huai'an.

3. Eel shredded cold noodles (shansi lengmian), beef noodles, and lamb noodles (yangrou mian) in Shanghai.

4. Beef rice noodles and Sichuan-style beef noodles in Nanchong, Sichuan; minced meat noodles (zajiang mian) in Chengdu; beef offal rice noodles (niuza fen) in Tuqiao, Chengdu; and goose soup noodles (etang mian) in Mimou Town, Chengdu.

5. Beef rice noodles (niurou migan) in Manluanhui, Menghai, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan; bridge-crossing rice noodles (guoqiao mixian) in Mengzi; grass sprout bridge-crossing rice noodles (caoya guoqiao mixian) in Jianshui; beef rolled rice noodles (niurou juanfen) in Najiaying, Yuxi; spicy rice noodles (ran mixian) and lamb rice noodles in Zhaotong; pea starch jelly (wandou fen), cold rice noodles (liang mixian), and rice noodles (ersi) in Kunming; local cold chicken rice noodles (tu liangji mixian) in Dali Ancient City; braised meat rice noodles (menrou mixian) in Xiaguan, Dali; and Burmese fried tofu mixed noodles in Ruili.

6. Tibetan noodles (zangmian) from Hui Muslims in Lhasa, Tibet.

7. Beef brisket noodles (niunan mian) and chicken rice noodles in Huihui Village, Sanya, Hainan.

1. Hubei

1. Hot dry noodles (reganmian) in Jingzhou

Yingxi Hui Muslim Street is located inside Yingxi Gate, the northwest gate of the Tu City in Shashi, Jingzhou. In the early years of the Republic of China, some Hui Muslims from Nanyang, Henan, came to Shashi as refugees and settled on Yingxi Street. They built a mosque there in 1925. I ate hot dry noodles at an unnamed halal restaurant on Yingxi Street. The hot dry noodles in Shashi are different from those in Wuhan because they add sweet bean sauce (tianmianjiang).













2. Spicy beef rice noodles (hongyou niurou fen) in Wuhan

After the Wuchang Prefecture city was built during the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty, the area outside Zhonghe Gate in the south of the city was originally a wasteland used as a material yard for building the city walls. In the late Ming Dynasty, a group of Hui Muslims who moved from Maguoyuan, Shaanxi, began to live here, working in cattle slaughtering, general goods, and the halal food industry. During the Daoguang reign of the Qing Dynasty, another group of Hui Muslims from Mianyang, Hubei, moved here due to floods, and the number of Hui Muslims outside Zhonghe Gate gradually increased.

Before the demolition in 2020, there was a lively morning market on Qiyi Street every day, crowded and full of life. On Xiangbi Street (the eastern section of Bao'an Street), which intersects with Qiyi Street, there is a halal breakfast shop called "Qingzhen Dajia Hongyou Niurou Fen Mian Guan." It is open daily from around 6:00 or 7:00 AM to 10:00 AM. I ate the spicy beef thin rice noodles there.













3. Beef noodles (niurou mian) in Xiangyang

As the most important commercial hub in the middle reaches of the Han River, Fancheng has had Hui Muslim residents since the Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Hui Muslims in Fancheng were mainly concentrated on Jiaomen Street, where the mosque is located. When the Fancheng Mosque was rebuilt in 1792 (the 57th year of the Qianlong reign), there were 222 local Hui Muslim households who donated funds. In 2015, all of Jiaomen Street was demolished for new construction. Now, only a row of shops selling beef noodles and raw beef remains at the bridgehead of the Han River Bridge.

Early in the morning, we went to the bridgehead to eat beef noodles at Liu's shop from Jiaomen Street. Liu's is run by the son of Liu Donghan, an old imam at the Fancheng mosque, and it is quite famous. When I was in college, our halal cafeteria had a stall for Xiangfan beef noodles, and my impression back then was that it was really spicy! This time, I finally got to taste the authentic version. After eating the authentic version, I felt it was indeed a bit spicy, haha. We specifically asked for no chili, but the braised beef broth itself is a little spicy. But besides the spice, the beef is really fragrant! They must use plenty of meat, and it is stewed until very flavorful.







2. Jiangsu

1. Nanjing's fish maw noodles, beef noodles, smoked fish noodles, and beef heart noodles.

Lvliuju was founded in 1912 by Taoye Ferry on the banks of the Qinhuai River. It started as a high-end vegetarian restaurant, and people like Kong Xiangxi, Chiang Ching-kuo, Bai Chongxi, and the Soong sisters often dined here. After 1949, Lvliuju closed for a time. It did not reopen until 1963 at Yanggongjing on Taiping South Road, where they hired the famous chef Chen Bingyu to continue serving authentic vegetarian food. A major feature of Lvliuju is vegetarian dishes made to taste like meat. Their vegetarian chicken (suji) and vegetarian duck (suya), made from tofu skin, gluten, and dried bean curd sticks with Chinese herbal seasonings, are delicious.

In 1987, Lvliuju added halal dishes to its vegetarian menu and became a halal restaurant, though vegetarian food remains its specialty. In 1995, it was rebuilt on the same site into the current five-story building, becoming a large halal restaurant in Nanjing. We ate fish maw noodles at Lvliuju, which also contained mushrooms, bamboo shoots, wood ear mushrooms, and green peas.







We ate at Jintongji Beef and Mutton Restaurant north of the Nanjing Confucius Temple, where we ordered a huge portion of Jintongji noodles with beef, beef tendon, beef tripe, and beef intestine, as well as smoked fish noodles. The black sweet beef was so delicious! It is very addictive, and the sweet smoked fish is also super tasty. (This is the old Jintongji shop; it has now moved to a new address.)









We had beef heart noodles at Xiaoyisi Noodle Shop on Luolang Lane in Nanjing (this is the old location; it has now moved to a new address). This shop has also been open for many years. It is a husband-and-wife business, and the owner is an uncle who wears a gold chain. Next to the noodle shop is the famous provincial cultural heritage site, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom architecture and murals on Luolang Lane.









2. Zhenjiang's dried tofu noodles (xianggan mian).

The ancient Runzhou Mosque (Runzhou libaisi) from the Yuan Dynasty in Zhenjiang was moved to Jianzi Lane in the city in 1602 (the 30th year of the Wanli reign) and has since been called the Jianzi Lane Mosque. In 2005, the Jianzi Lane Mosque was demolished due to the construction of the Zhenjiang First Building commercial pedestrian street, but there are still many halal restaurants nearby. We ate dried tofu noodles (xianggan mian) at Yang Dahai Steamed Bun Shop in the small alley north of Jianzi Lane. They had a slightly sweet taste, and the noodle broth was very much in the Jianghuai style.









3. Chicken shredded noodles (jisi mian) of Huai'an

Because navigating the Yellow River section of the Grand Canal was very dangerous, and waiting times to pass through locks after entering Shandong were too long, many merchants chose to leave their boats at Qingjiangpu in Huai'an, Jiangsu. They would cross the Yellow River and switch to horse-drawn carriages to continue north, making Qingjiangpu a transportation hub for southern boats and northern horses. Hui Muslims have been doing business on Yuehe Street in front of the Imperial Wharf since the Ming Dynasty, and the Qingjiang Mosque was built during the Jiajing period of the Ming Dynasty.

Eating wonton noodles at the entrance of the Qingjiangpu Mosque.







I ate chicken shredded noodles at Liu Si Noodle Shop. It had fish balls, beef balls, and squid inside. The fish balls were super delicious, the soup was excellent, and it felt great to finish the meal.











Heading south along the canal from Qingjiangpu, you reach the ancient town of Hexia, not far northwest of the Huai'an prefectural city. Hexia is the largest town in the suburbs of Huai'an. Its official historical name was Manpu, and it developed into an important canal town during the Song and Yuan dynasties. Because the salt production and quality in the coastal salt fields north of the Huai River were very high, many salt merchants from the northwest and Anhui came to the region in the late Ming Dynasty to work in the salt industry. The wealth brought by these merchants made Hexia a prosperous commercial center. Many Hui Muslims also came to settle in Hexia, and the Hexia Mosque was first built during the Ming Dynasty.

We had some very fragrant chicken shredded noodles at a halal snack shop on Zhugan Lane in Hexia Town. When eating noodles in Jiangsu, the soup is more important than the noodles themselves.





4. Shanghai

1. Shanghai's eel shredded cold noodles (shansi lengmian), beef noodles, and lamb noodles

Yixinzhai is an old shop on Pingliang Road in Yangpu District that opened in 1958. It is most famous for its pan-fried beef buns (niurou jianbao) and three-yellow chicken (sanhuangji). In the summer, they also sell shaved ice and cold noodles. I ate the eel shredded cold noodles here. The topping was made with two types of mushrooms and three shredded ingredients, and it was truly delicious.







At Zhang Xuchang Old Man Noodle Shop on Houjia Road, the lamb noodles and beef noodles are served with the toppings on the side. The beef comes with yellow curry, and the lamb is served in a clear white broth.













5. Sichuan

1. Nanchong beef rice noodles (niurou fen) and Sichuan-style beef noodles

The ancestors of Imam Feng Yong from the Nanchong Mosque moved to Nanchong from Shaanxi during the Qing Dynasty. During the Republic of China era, the Feng family joined forces through marriage with three other families: Yang Fangyun who ran "Red Lantern Dried Beef," Ma Yutu who ran "Ma Laizi Canned Beef," and Zhang Dechao who ran "Beef Crispy Cakes." The Imam's grandfather, Feng Zifeng, founded the "Shixian" brand on Fu Street and opened a halal restaurant. Today, Imam Feng Yong's family still runs an authentic Sichuan halal food business at the entrance of the mosque.

At the Nanchong Mosque, people eat beef rice noodles or beef tripe rice noodles for breakfast every day.







You can also eat Sichuan-style beef noodles here.



2. Chengdu's minced meat noodles (zajiangmian).

There is a halal hot pot restaurant called Dawude on Renhou Street near Kuanzhai Alley. Most local halal restaurants in downtown Chengdu do not serve breakfast, but this is one of the few I know that does. The owner is a Hui Muslim from Qingchuan, Guangyuan. I had the minced meat noodles (zajiangmian) here, and they tasted very authentic.









3. Beef offal rice noodles (niuzhafen) in Tuqiao, Chengdu.

After the Huangchengba Muslim community was dissolved, Tuqiao Town in the northwest suburbs became the closest traditional Muslim community to downtown Chengdu. Many local Hui Muslims come here for Friday namaz. Although Tuqiao Town has gone through demolition, the traditional mosque and the halal snack shops at its entrance are still there, so it remains very lively. I arrived in Tuqiao before the Friday namaz and had beef offal rice noodles (niuzhafen) at a snack shop by the entrance.







4. Goose soup noodles (etangmian) in Mimou Town, Chengdu.

Mimou Town is located in the Qingbaijiang District, on the border between Chengdu and Guanghan. Hui Muslims have lived here since the Ming Dynasty. After the Kangxi period, many Hui Muslims from Shaanxi and Hunan moved to the area around Mimou Town and built six mosques one after another.

Unlike the heavily developed ancient city of Guanxian in Dujiangyan, Mimou Town has no traces of tourism. It is full of daily life and keeps its own pace. I had goose soup noodles (etangmian) here.







V. Yunnan

1. Beef rice noodles (niurou migan) in Manluanhui, Menghai, Xishuangbanna.

The Paxi Dai people live in two villages in Menghai County, Xishuangbanna: Manluanhui and Mansaihui. In the Dai language, "man" means village. The Paxi Dai call themselves "Paxi." They follow Islam and observe the faith, but they speak the Dai language, use the Dai script, and make halal Dai-style food. You could say they have kept their Hui Muslim identity while blending into Dai culture.

We had a halal Dai-style breakfast in Manluanhui at a restaurant called Paxi Dai. In the morning, Paxi Dai people mainly eat beef rice noodles (niurou mixian) and flat rice noodles (migan). We ordered the flat rice noodles. The variety of side dishes here is really rich, including pea tips, chives, bean sprouts, and various dipping sauces. The best part is that their beef is delicious! It is a little sweet and very fragrant.



















2. Crossing-the-bridge rice noodles (guoqiao mixian) in Mengzi.

In Mengzi, I ate at a very popular halal crossing-the-bridge rice noodles (guoqiao mixian) restaurant called Yitiange. They have copper pot crossing-the-bridge rice noodles ranging from 12 to 50 yuan. We ordered the 50-yuan deluxe version, which came with 26 small plates. The broth and rice noodles can be refilled as much as you want. The plates included raw fish slices, raw beef slices, raw quail eggs, shrimp, dried beef (niuganba), beef tongue, cold duck slices, cold beef slices, crispy beef fat, braised beef, grass sprouts, chrysanthemum, pea paste, bean sprouts, bean curd skin, chives, cilantro, mint, chopped green onions, melon tips, ginger, garlic, chili, and chili sauce. The variety is the most complete I have ever eaten!













3. Jianshui's grass sprout bridge-crossing rice noodles (guoqiao mixian).

I ate the local specialty, grass sprout bridge-crossing rice noodles, on Mashi Street near the Chaoyang Tower in the old town of Jianshui.











4. Yuxi Najiaying's beef rolled rice noodles (juanfen).

I ate beef rolled rice noodles in Najiaying, Yuxi, in the morning.









5. Zhaotong's spicy oil rice noodles (ran mixian) and lamb rice noodles.

I ate spicy oil rice noodles at the entrance of the Zhaotong East Mosque (Dongdasi).





I ate lamb rice noodles across from the Zhaotong East Mosque. Many places in Yunnan serve beef rice noodles, but this was my first time eating the lamb version.







6. Kunming's pea starch jelly (wandoufen), cold rice noodles (liang mixian), and thick rice noodles (ersi).

I ate cold pea starch jelly, a mix of thick and thin, on Shuncheng Halal Street in Kunming.







Imam Ma Cong treated us to Niangniang cold rice noodles at the entrance of the Jinniu Street Mosque in Kunming; we had one bowl each of rolled rice noodles and rice noodles, and they tasted amazing.





In the late 19th century, as Hui Muslim caravans traveling through Kunming and Dali to Myanmar and Thailand flourished, Hui Muslims from western Yunnan, such as those from Weishan in Dali, began to settle in the Qingyun Street area of Kunming. In 1899 (the 25th year of the Guangxu reign), Hui Muslims from western Yunnan in Kunming and the Xing Shun He firm, founded by Yuxi Hui Muslims, jointly raised funds to build the Chongshan Guild Hall at the east end of Qingyun Street. Later, Dali Hui Muslims merged the Zhuiyuan Hall, Chengyi Hall, and Baozhen Hall with the Chongshan Guild Hall. In 1919, it was renamed Chongshan Society by order of Yunnan Governor Tang Jiyao. It was officially renamed the Yixigong Mosque in 1942, and in 1951, it was also known as the Kunming Overseas Chinese Mosque.

I ate Dali thick rice noodles at the entrance of the Kunming Yixigong Mosque in the morning.









7. Dali Ancient City's local cold chicken rice noodles.

Zaihuishou is a very famous halal snack shop in Dali Ancient City, and its specialty is cold chicken rice noodles.





8. Dali Xiaguan's braised meat rice noodles.

I ate braised meat rice noodles on the Hui Muslim street in Xiaguan, Dali.







9. Ruili's Burmese fried tofu mixed noodles.

Between the opening of the border in 1985 and its closure in 2020, many Burmese Muslims came to Ruili to do business, forming a Burmese halal snack street in the East Alley of Baijing, Ruili. The Muslims in Ruili are mainly Bamar Muslims, an ethnic group formed by the intermarriage of South Asian Muslims and the Bamar people. After the British occupied Myanmar in the 19th century, a large number of South Asian Muslims came to make a living, spreading to almost every city in Myanmar. Burmese Muslims speak Burmese and share similar customs with the Burmese people, and they make up the largest group of Muslims in Myanmar.

The paste on this auntie's face is called thanaka. It is made by grinding yellow fragrant wood branches into powder and mixing it with water. It keeps mosquitoes away and feels cool on the skin.

In front of her are various types of mixed noodles, ranging from thick to thin: nan ji, lat, and thay thout. The white ones are glass noodles (ja zan). I ate mixed noodles made with Burmese fried tofu.







6. Tibet

1. Tibetan noodles from the Tibetan Hui Muslims in Lhasa

In the southeast of the ancient Barkhor city in Lhasa, there is an area called Hebalin, which used to be a forest on the banks of the Lhasa River. Many Muslims live here who speak Tibetan, wear Tibetan clothes, and eat Tibetan food. They are also called Hebalin Tibetan Hui Muslims. Most of these Tibetan Hui Muslims are descendants of Hui Muslim officers and soldiers from the Qing army stationed in Tibet after the 18th century.

I ate Tibetan noodles at a Tibetan Hui Muslim restaurant called Yibire Steamed Bun Shop in the small alleys of Hebalin.











7. Hainan

1. Beef brisket noodles and chicken rice noodles of the Huihui people in Sanya

The Ha family of the Sanya Huihui people traces their ancestry back to Pu Chengshipeng, Pu Chengxiang, Pu Chengxi, Pu Chengfu, and Pu Chengrui. According to Ha Bingzhong, a seventh-generation descendant of Pu Chengshipeng born in 1871, Pu Chengshipeng's father moved from Shaanxi to Guangta Street in Guangzhou, then brought his whole family to Dadan Port in Yazhou, Hainan, before moving to Huihui Village in Sanya during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

The Ha Xuanren Beef Brisket Noodle Shop opened by the Ha family in Huihui Village is very famous.







I had chicken rice noodles at the Li Family Rice Noodle shop in Huixin Village, Sanya, in the morning. It was super fresh!





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Reposted from the web

Summary: Halal Food Guide: Northern China — Noodles, Hui Muslims and Local Flavor is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: 12. Black goat oil-splashed mixed noodles (heishanyuguoyouroubanmian) from Toksun, Xinjiang; yellow noodles with roasted meat (huangmiankaorou) from Flaming Mountains; Hui Muslim home-style mixed noodles (banmian) from. The account keeps its focus on Northern China Food, Noodles, Halal Food while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

1. Hand-rolled noodles (shouganmian) from Lingyuan, Liaoning; hand-rolled noodles (shouganmian) from Kaiyuan; cold noodles (lengmian) from Suizhong.

2. Stir-fried oat noodle cones (chaoyoumianwowo) from Zhangjiakou, Hebei.

3. Beijing's braised lamb with Sichuan peppercorn sauce noodles (shaoyangrouhuajiaocuanmian), beef noodles (niuroumian), soybean paste noodles (zhajiangmian), and sliced noodles (daoxiaomian) from Xiguanshi.

4. Shredded chicken cold noodles (jisiliangmian) from the Northwest Corner of Tianjin.

5. Cold broth oat noodles (liangtangyoumian) from Hohhot, Inner Mongolia.

6. Fermented bean paste noodles (jiangmiantiao) from Bo'ai, Henan; stir-fried broth noodles (qiangguomian) from Kaifeng.

7. Sliced noodles (daoxiaomian) from Datong, Shanxi; picked-tip noodles (tijianmian) from Taiyuan.

8. Beef pulled noodles (niurouchemiant) from Xixiang, Shaanxi; steamed noodles (zhengmian) from Ankang; lamb topping noodles (yangrousaozimian) from Shuhe.

9. Lamb and small dough flake soup (lianguoyangrouxiaojiupian) from Yinchuan, Ningxia.

10. Lentil sparrow-tongue noodles (biandouqueshemian) and riverside dough flakes (heyanmianpian) from Lanzhou, Gansu; old-style braised noodles (laolumian) from Linxia; old-style stir-fried dough flakes (laochaomianpian) from Dahejia; cold noodles (liangmian) from the Flower Festival (hua'erhui) at Songmingyan.

11. Fermented bean paste dough flakes (jiangshuimianpian) and lamb intestine noodles (yangchangmian) from Xining, Qinghai; meat sauce dry-mixed noodles (roujiangganbanmian) from Xunhua.

12. Black goat oil-splashed mixed noodles (heishanyuguoyouroubanmian) from Toksun, Xinjiang; yellow noodles with roasted meat (huangmiankaorou) from Flaming Mountains; Hui Muslim home-style mixed noodles (banmian) from Urumqi; bean noodles (doudoumian) and eggplant noodles (qiezimian) from Shanshan County; pigeon and turnip noodles (geziqiamgumian) from Yarkant; big bowl wild mushroom lamb soup noodles (dawanyemoguyangroutangfan) from Hami; wild mushroom mixed noodles (yemogubanmian) from Bayanbulak Town; stir-fried twisted fish noodles (baochaochouyumian) from Zhaosu.

1. Liaoning

1. Hand-rolled noodles (shouganmian) from Lingyuan

Lingyuan sits at the border of Hebei, Liaoning, and Inner Mongolia. It was originally called Tazigou. Since the Qianlong reign of the Qing Dynasty, Hui Muslims from Shandong and Hebei continuously traveled through the Great Wall gap at Xifengkou to reach the northeast. Lingyuan was their first stop after leaving the pass, and some Hui Muslims settled there. The Lingyuan mosque was built during the Qianlong reign. According to the stone tablet inside, Hui Muslim doctor Zhang Lichen and others cured the illness of a Mongol prince in the Harqin Left Banner. The prince then donated the land and money to build the Lingyuan mosque.

I stopped at a small eatery at the entrance of the Lingyuan mosque and ordered the owner's recommended stir-fried shredded meat with hand-rolled noodles (shouganmian). In the Northeast, the portions are truly large and affordable. A bowl of noodles only costs five yuan and is very satisfying.







2. Hand-rolled noodles (shouganmian) from Kaiyuan

Most Hui Muslims in Kaiyuan migrated here during the Qing Dynasty's expansion into the Northeast. The Old City mosque was built in 1406 (the fourth year of the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty) and is the oldest mosque in the Northeast. We had a bowl of egg hand-rolled noodles (shouganmian) at Lingtou Niu next to Kaiyuan People's Park. It cost 8 yuan and was a very comfortable meal.







3. Cold noodles (lengmian) from Suizhong

Suizhong is right next to Shanhai Pass and is the southwestern-most county in Liaoning. Starting in the 18th century, more than ten Hui Muslim families, including the Zhang, Ding, Li, and Jin families, moved to Suizhong from Hebei Province. The first mosque was built in 1737 (the second year of the Qianlong reign) below the Kuixing Pavilion in the southeast of Suizhong city. We ate local-style cold noodles (lengmian) in Suizhong; they were delicious, cheap, and perfect for cooling off.







2. Hebei

1. Stir-fried oat noodle cones (chao youmian wowo) in Zhangjiakou

The Xinhua Street Mosque in Zhangjiakou was originally called the Shenggou Mosque. It was built in 1863 (the second year of the Tongzhi reign) with funds raised by over eighty Hui Muslim families from Ningxia who came to Zhangjiakou for the camel trade, which is why it is also known as the Camel Workshop Mosque (Tuofang Qingzhensi). These Ningxia Hui Muslims were mainly from the Ma, Liu, Li, Du, Wu, Wang, and Ding families. They used camels to transport furs, silk, tea, and other goods for merchants, traveling between Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Gansu, Mongolia, and Russia.

I ate stir-fried oat noodle cones at Binbin Snacks across from the Xinhua Street Mosque.







3. Beijing

1. Braised beef noodles, soybean paste noodles (zhajiangmian), and roasted lamb with Sichuan peppercorn sauce noodles (shao yangrou huajiao cuanmian) in Beijing

I had braised beef noodles, a small bowl of beef, and sweet and sour radish (tangcu xinlimei) at Baodu Xiaobaimao on Dongzhimen Inner Street. They gave such a huge portion of beef in the small bowl that it completely covered the noodles, which was so satisfying! I wasn't even hungry by the time night came.







I usually like to go to Liu's Men-ding (a type of pan-fried bun) at Hongmiao for their soybean paste noodles.







I ate roasted lamb with Sichuan peppercorn sauce noodles at the Drum Tower (Gulou) on Donggong Street. Beijingers often eat roasted lamb and make their own Sichuan peppercorn sauce, but it is rare to see them combined. I really love this way of eating it; it is very satisfying.





2. Sliced noodles (daoxiaomian) in Xiguanshi

The Hui Muslims of Xiguanshi came to Beijing in the early Ming Dynasty following the Prince of Yan on his northern campaign. Because they were near the main trade route from Beijing to Zhangjiakou and were skilled in martial arts, the Hui Muslims of Xiguanshi opened many security escort agencies outside Beijing's Qianmen Gate starting in the Qing Dynasty. They specialized in protecting merchants from the five northwestern provinces, primarily serving wealthy Shanxi merchants. People say the character Li Wuye, known for his magic slingshot in the story "Shigong An," was a Hui Muslim from Xiguanshi. The depictions of the archer Li Guoliang and the Dongguangyu Escort Agency outside Qianmen in the book "Yongzheng Jianxia Tu" vividly show the life of the Xiguanshi Hui Muslim escort agencies during the Qing Dynasty.

Because of their close ties with Shanxi, you can find halal sliced noodles and Bashang oat noodles in Xiguanshi that are hard to find in the city. We ate sliced noodles at an old shop in the village and also ordered beef tongue and meat-stuffed tripe (doubaorou). I had been craving sliced noodles ever since I had them in Datong, and I was finally able to eat them again.





4. Tianjin

1. Shredded chicken cold noodles (jisi liangmian) at the northwest corner.

I had a bowl of shredded chicken cold noodles with a childhood friend at Huancheng Noodle Restaurant, plus a plate of century egg with tofu (pidan doufu). It was very refreshing. Almost no other halal restaurant in Beijing makes cold noodles better than this one.





5. Inner Mongolia

1. Cold broth oat noodles (liangtang youmian) in Hohhot.

I ate cold broth oat noodles at Xiangcunxiang Youmian on Niujie Street. They serve oat noodles four ways: with hot lamb broth, cold beef broth, mixed with vegetables, or stir-fried with meat. You can choose between oat noodle rolls (youmian wowo) or regular noodles. I find the cold broth version very satisfying in the summer. When eating, first pour vinegar and chili oil over the vegetables and fried sauce, mix it well, and then add the oat noodle rolls. It is very refreshing.











6. Henan

1. Fermented bean broth noodles (jiang miantiao) in Bo'ai.

The Xiguan Mosque in Bo'ai was built during the Yuan Dynasty and is known as the "First Mosque of Northern Henan." We ate the local specialty, fermented bean broth noodles. These are made by boiling the liquid squeezed out during tofu production into a broth, then adding soybeans, peanuts, celery, and crushed sesame paste. It tastes sour and fragrant, and it feels even better to eat in the summer.







2. Stir-fried broth noodles (qiangguo mian) in Kaifeng.

The Dongsimen Night Market in Kaifeng is at the intersection of Dongdajie Street and Jiefang Road. The market itself is small, but the atmosphere is great, with locals coming to eat and chat. We ate the classic stir-fried broth noodles at the night market.







7. Shanxi

1. Knife-cut noodles (daoxiao mian) in Datong.

The History of Yuan (Yuan Shi) records that in 1324, the first year of the Taiding era, the emperor ordered mosques to be built in Shangdu and Datong, granting 40,000 ingots of currency. This makes the Datong Mosque one of only two mosques from the Yuan Dynasty with official imperial records.

Yingze Street is a snack street in Datong with several halal restaurants. Most of the halal snacks here are only served in the morning, so it is best to come for breakfast. We ate knife-cut noodles with dried tofu and beef meatballs at Fengji Breakfast Shop. Datong's knife-cut noodles are probably the most famous. We tried them, and they lived up to their reputation; the texture of the noodles is excellent. People in Datong like to pair their knife-cut noodles with various braised meats and soy-sauce-marinated foods, which makes the flavor and texture very rich.







2. Poked noodles (tijian mian) in Taiyuan.

After the Ming Dynasty, Taiyuan gradually formed the "Ten Great Surnames of the Hui Muslims." During the Qing Dynasty, Taiyuan had over 100 local Hui Muslim households, plus more than 10 households of Hui Muslims who came from Suiyuan to do business, totaling five or six hundred people. After the Zhengtai Railway opened in 1907, the number of Hui Muslims coming to Taiyuan from Hebei increased significantly.

Yiqingyuan is a large halal restaurant in Taiyuan, where I ate hand-picked noodles (tijianmian). Shanxi has a truly rich variety of wheat-based foods. Hand-picked noodles (tijianmian) are made by using chopsticks to flick the dough into the pot. They are served with two types of sauce: meat gravy and tomato-egg sauce. This bowl of noodles only cost five yuan.







8. Shaanxi

1. Xixiang beef pulled noodles (che mian)

Xixiang County is located in the middle of the Hanzhong Basin in southern Shaanxi, nestled between the Qinling Mountains and the Bashan Mountains. The Muma River, a tributary of the Han River, flows through the county seat. Starting from the Ming Dynasty, Hui Muslims from Pingliang, Gansu, traveled to settle in Xixiang. During the Kangxi and Qianlong eras, the Hui Muslim population continued to grow. Local friends (dost) enthusiastically took us to eat.

Halal restaurants in Xixiang are mainly concentrated around the West Gate area. We ate the local specialty, braised beef pulled noodles (che mian), at an imam's (ahong) shop.







2. Ankang steamed noodles (zhengmian)

Ankang is the largest Muslim community in southern Shaanxi. Hui Muslims have lived there since the Ming Dynasty, and by the Republican era, seven mosques had been built. Ankang also has the richest halal food in southern Shaanxi.

In the morning, I ate steamed noodles (zhengmian) at Huang's Steamed Noodles, the most popular spot at the entrance of Gulou Street. Unlike the cold noodles (liangpi) in Xi'an which are seasoned with raw vinegar, Ankang steamed noodles (zhengmian) use boiled, cooked vinegar. Steamed noodles (zhengmian) usually include chili oil, but I didn't add any because I can't handle much spice.











3. Shuhe lamb mince noodles (saozimian)

Shuhe Ancient Town is the last town the Han River passes through before flowing from southern Shaanxi into Hubei. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, when Han River shipping was booming, it was an important commercial post. The town was filled with merchants and shops. Hui Muslims moved to Shuhe to settle during that time, and there are still several hundred households there today.

I ate lamb mince noodles (saozimian) on the street in Shuhe Town.







9. Ningxia

1. Yinchuan lamb pot-pinched noodles (xiao jiupian)

I ate lamb pot-pinched noodles (xiao jiupian) at Fuyuan Noodle Restaurant on Zhongxin Lane in Yinchuan. Lamb pot-pinched noodles (xiao jiupian) are made by three people pinching the dough into a large pot at the same time. Seeing the pieces of dough flying into the pot is quite a spectacular sight.









10. Gansu

1. Lanzhou mung bean sparrow-tongue noodles (biandou queshe mian) and river-bank noodle pieces (heyan mianpian)

After the 1980s, many Dongxiang people moved to Lanzhou to make a living, settling mostly in the Baishu Lane, Jiangouyan, and Shangxiyuan areas of Xiaoxihu. I had a small bowl of lentil sparrow-tongue noodles (biandou queshe mian) at Zhonghua Hand-Grabbed Lamb King in Jiangouyan. This place is very popular in Xiaoxihu. You have to share a table at noon, but the environment and service are great, and they refill your water often.





There are many restaurants side-by-side on Jiangouyan Street, and I also ate river-bank noodle slices (heyan mianpian) here. River-bank noodle slices originated in Guanghe County, Linxia. They evolved from stir-fried noodle slices (chao mianpian), but the flavor is much richer.





2. Linxia's old-style braised noodles (lao lu mian)

I ate old-style braised noodles in Linxia. The old-braised noodles were very rich and had a thick, hearty texture.





3. Dahejia's old-style stir-fried noodle slices (lao chao mianpian)

Dahejia is on the border of Gansu and Qinghai. Once you cross the Yellow River Bridge, you are in Minhe, Qinghai. People from the Bonan, Dongxiang, Salar, Han, Hui Muslims, and Tibetan ethnic groups live here. The town has many Dongxiang hand-grabbed lamb restaurants and Bonan waist-knife shops. We ate old-style stir-fried noodle slices here. My standard order whenever I visit the Hehuang region is hand-grabbed lamb (shouzhua) and noodle slices. This long-standing restaurant is crowded at noon. Most people eat cold noodles, but some order river-bank or old-style stir-fried noodles. Their kettles are filled with beef broth, and they put chopped green onions and salt in empty bowls so you can pour the broth and drink it right away.







4. Tofu cold noodles (doufu liangmian) at the Songmingyan Flower Festival

Every year during the Flower Festival, the entrance to the Songmingyan scenic area turns into a big market. It is very lively and sells everything. Before going into the mountains to listen to the folk songs (hua'er), we ate tofu cold noodles at the entrance.







11. Qinghai

1. Xining's fermented vegetable noodle slices (jiangshui mianpian) and lamb intestine noodles (yangchang mian)

A local friend in Xining recommended Dongxiang Jinhai Hand-Grabbed Lamb on Yangjia Lane. We ate fermented vegetable noodle slices there, and the pickled radishes and eight-treasure tea (babao cha) were free. It turned out to be the best meal we had on this trip! It was cheap and delicious, and the service was excellent. Every two minutes, a waiter would come by with a kettle to ask if we needed more tea. Zaina Bu really liked the fermented vegetable broth (jiangshui) and basically drank it all in one go.









Nilo Food City on the fifth floor of Xining's Wangfujing department store gathers many local halal snacks. It is clean, hygienic, and cheap. We ate the Qinghai-style lamb intestine noodles.







2. Dry mixed noodles with meat sauce from Xunhua.

Here in Xunhua, even the beef noodle shops have small private rooms; the environment is really quite good. After ordering, they served meat broth and tea first, and we also ordered a platter of cold dishes. Besides the thread chili (xianlajiao), people in Xunhua also love eating tiger-skin chili (hupilajiao). While waiting for the bus earlier, I noticed the grandpas and grandmas shopping were all carrying a bag of tiger-skin chili.

Dry-mixed noodles with meat sauce (roujiangganban) should be a specialty here in Qinghai. I had it before at a Salar restaurant in Beijing called A-Gong Noodle House, but this time it felt more authentic. The noodles were thin and chewy, the sauce was especially fragrant, and this meal cost less than twenty yuan, which is great value.









12. Xinjiang.

1. Black goat meat stir-fried with noodles (guoyou rou banmian) from Toksun.

The most popular spot in Toksun town is Lao Si Hao. It is packed at meal times, with locals and people who traveled specifically from Turpan. Their specialty is black goat meat stir-fried with noodles. The black goat is a local specialty that lives on the cliffs of the Tianshan Mountains. It is much more expensive than regular lamb, but the taste and texture are truly different. I think it is much better.









2. Yellow noodles (huangmian) with grilled meat from Flaming Mountain.

Eating yellow noodles with grilled meat in Flaming Mountain Town. Flaming Mountain Town is famous for its yellow noodles with grilled meat, and the whole street sells them. The most famous shop is called 'Flaming Mountain Famous Yellow Noodle and Grilled Meat Shop,' but it was fully booked when we arrived, so we ate at the place across the street. We ordered a mix of yellow noodles and cold starch noodles (liangpi). The grilled meat is taken off the skewers and placed on top of the yellow noodles. It is very refreshing in the summer and feels perfect for the climate of Flaming Mountain.









3. Home-style mixed noodles (banmian) from a Hui Muslim family in Urumqi.

Our first meal back in Urumqi featured four types of mixed noodles: celery with meat, onion (piyazi) with cherry radish, eggplant with meat, and pickled vegetables with meat. It was wonderful. This time, the hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) were made using the coiled method, where the dough is rolled out and then coiled to rest.











4. Bean noodles (doudou mian) and eggplant noodles from Shanshan County.

Eating bean noodles and eggplant noodles in Shanshan County, Turpan. People in Turpan really love beans, including bean soup rice (doudou tangfan), bean dumplings (doudou ququ'er), and bean mixed noodles.













5. Pigeon and turnip (qiamagu) noodles from Yarkant (Shache).

We ate pigeon with the Yarkant Muqam Art Troupe at the 'Muqam Hometown Restaurant.' This is a famous place for eating pigeon in Yarkant.







6. Large bowl of wild mushroom and lamb soup rice (tangfan) from Hami.

Eating Hui Muslim-style large bowl of wild mushroom and lamb soup rice in Hami. It is called a large bowl, but it is actually a large basin. When you order, the portion is based on the amount of lamb, with a minimum of half a kilogram, served with fried dough (youxiang) and various side dishes. This was my first time eating lamb soup with rice (yangrou tangfan) in such a generous portion, and it felt so warm and comfortable.









7. Wild mushroom noodles (banmian) in Bayanbulak Town.

I ate wild mushroom noodles in Bayanbulak Town, Bayingolin Prefecture. In the summer, the whole town is covered in wild mushrooms drying in the sun.









8. Stir-fried hand-rolled noodles (cuoyumian) in Zhaosu.

I had a plate of stir-fried hand-rolled noodles at the Zhaosu food street. The Huo surname among Hui Muslims comes from "Khwaja," which means "Hoja."





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