Reposted from the web

Summary: Tehran — Golestan Palace, Qajar History and Islamic Art is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Golestan Palace (Kākh-e Golestān) means Garden Palace. The word Gol in the name is the same as the name Guli that we are familiar with. The account keeps its focus on Tehran Travel, Golestan Palace, Qajar History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Golestan Palace (Kākh-e Golestān) means Garden Palace. The word Gol in the name is the same as the name Guli that we are familiar with. Located in Tehran, the capital of Iran, it was the royal palace of the Qajar dynasty and was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2013.

Golestan Palace was first called the Tehran Citadel (Arg). It was built during the reign of Tahmasp I (reigned 1524-1576) of the Persian Safavid dynasty and was rebuilt during the reign of Karim Khan (reigned 1750-1779) of the Zand dynasty. After Agha Mohammad Khan (reigned 1789-1797) of the Qajar dynasty made Tehran his capital, he officially converted the Tehran Citadel into the Golestan Royal Palace. Haji Ab ol Hasan Mimar Navai rebuilt the palace again in 1865.

Between 1925 and 1945, Reza Shah (reigned 1925-1941) of the Pahlavi dynasty ordered the demolition of most of the Golestan Palace buildings for modern urban development. Modern-style commercial buildings were built there one after another between the 1950s and 1960s.

Karim Khani Nook

Karim Khani Nook was built in 1759 by Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty. It is a terrace featuring a marble throne. There used to be a pool with a fountain in the middle of the terrace. Water flowed into the pond from underground water channels (Qanat) and then flowed to other parts of the palace. Nasser ed Din Shah (reigned 1848-1896) of the Qajar dynasty loved this place. People say he often sat here quietly smoking a water pipe. Today, the marble tombstone of Nasser ed Din Shah stands here, and his portrait is also on the walls of the building.

















Negar Khane Gallery

In 1872, during his second visit to Europe, Nasser ed Din Shah was deeply impressed by the artifacts displayed in European museums. After returning to Tehran, he set out to create a museum hall in the Kakh-e Asli area of the palace to display paintings, jewelry, and other royal artifacts.

Today, most of the Qajar dynasty collection has been scattered among various museums in Tehran, but many paintings are still kept in Golestan Palace. The southern gallery now houses paintings by early Qajar dynasty masters, including Mirza Baba, Mehr Ali Afshar, Ali Akbar Khan, and Ab ol Hassan Sani. The northern gallery was the home of the royal guard during the Pahlavi period. It underwent a major renovation in 1995 and now displays paintings by late Qajar dynasty masters, including Mahmoud Khan Saba, Mohammad Gafari Kashani, Mehri, and Mosa Momayez.







The harem of Nasser ed Din Shah.



Nasser ed Din Shah hunting, painted in 1884.



Servants in the court of Nasser ed Din Shah, painted in 1881.



Golestan Palace, painted in 1885.



Interior of Golestan Palace, painted in 1864.



Celebration of the 30th anniversary of Nasser ed Din Shah's reign, painted in 1878.



Physician Mirza Abolfazl Tabib Kashani taking a patient's pulse, painted in 1859.



Qajar dynasty prince Abdol-Samad Mirza.



Mohammad Ghasem Khan and Mohammad Hossein, painted in 1891. The former was the Qajar dynasty ambassador to Russia.



Painted in 1895.





The Shia holy city of Karbala, painted in 1902.



Portraits of the Qajar dynasty royal family.







Makhsus Museum

The Makhsus Museum (Mouze-ye Makhsous) preserves copperware, silverware, and weapons gifted to the Qajar dynasty by European kings.







Main Building

East of the museum is the main building (Kakh-e Asli) of Golestan Palace. In front of the main building is a 118-meter-long pool containing 15 fountains. Historical photos show that the pool was once surrounded by bronze statues of boys holding torches and animals, but they were all removed during the Pahlavi dynasty.





On both sides of the entrance is a pair of brass roaring lions symbolizing power.





After entering the main entrance, there is a staircase (Sar sara) with 22 steps, decorated with mirrors in geometric patterns.





The column bases on the second floor of the main building are covered with colorful tiles, including portraits of past Iranian kings, hunting scenes, coronation ceremonies, some legends and religious stories, and animal figures imitating Persepolis. These tiles once belonged to the Khabgah sleeping quarters and the Haram Khaneh buildings. After these two buildings were demolished, the tiles were moved to the second floor of the main building.













Reception Hall

The Reception Hall (Talar-e Salam), also called the Coronation Hall (Talar-e Taj Gozaari) or the Museum Hall, is where five Qajar dynasty kings and the second Pahlavi king were crowned. Talar-e Salam is the grandest hall in the main building. It is 43 meters long and 20 meters wide, with 20 arches along the sides and beautiful mosaics on the floor. Qajar king Naser al-Din Shah, who reigned from 1848 to 1896, used this space to receive various envoys and guests from European courts. At that time, the hall displayed various Iranian and European paintings and royal jewels. These royal jewels are now kept at the Royal Jewelry Museum in the Central Bank of Iran.











The Talar-e Adj hall is the room where gifts sent to Naser al-Din Shah from various countries were kept. During the Pahlavi dynasty, this space became a reception hall for hosting court banquets, and the interior decorations were renovated.





Mirror Hall

The Mirror Hall (Talar-e Ayineh) is the smallest but most dazzling room in the main building. The gorgeous interior decorations look especially bright reflected in the many mirrors. This room once held the Persian Peacock Throne (Takht-e Tavoos) and the Kiani Crown (Taj-e Kiani) until they were moved to the Royal Jewelry Museum at the Central Bank of Iran in 1980.



















Talar-e Zoruf

Talar-e Zoruf is a room dedicated to displaying porcelain gifted to the Qajar dynasty by European monarchs like Napoleon, Queen Victoria of England, and Tsars Nicholas I and Alexander III. It was renovated during the Pahlavi dynasty.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: Urumqi Hui Muslims in Republican China: History, Photos and Muslim Life is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: I recently bought an interesting book called Urumqi Anecdotes (Wulumuqi Zhanggu). It made the Urumqi of a hundred years ago feel much more alive to me. The account keeps its focus on Urumqi History, Hui Muslims, Xinjiang while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

I recently bought an interesting book called Urumqi Anecdotes (Wulumuqi Zhanggu). It made the Urumqi of a hundred years ago feel much more alive to me.

Table of Contents

1. The camel caravan of Hui Muslim Yang Zhong, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

2. The open-air teahouse run by Hui Muslim master Han Shila.

3. The cold starch noodles (liangpi) made by Hui Muslim master Han Youcai, whose ancestral home was Qinghai.

4. The fermented oat porridge (tianpeizi) from Hui Muslim master Shan.

5. The cold mixed starch sheet noodles (liangban fenpi) from Hui Muslim master Yang Hengkui, whose ancestral home was Fengxiang, Shaanxi.

6. The leaf-shaped noodle shop (yezimian guan) run by Hui Muslim master Liu Wanchun, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

7. The egg fermented rice soup (jidan laozhao) and tofu pudding (doufunao) from Hui Muslim master Ma.

8. The cured mutton (la yangrou) from Hui Muslim master Zhou, known as Fatty Sanwa (Pang Sanwa).

9. The yogurt (suannai zi) and shaved ice (xuehua liang) from Hui Muslim master Ding Wanfu.

10. The crystal cake (jingjing gao) from Hui Muslim master She Yafang, whose ancestral home was Lantian, Shaanxi.

11. The spiced cured lamb hooves (hu la yangti) from Hui Muslim master Mu Laoba, whose ancestral home was Tianjin.

12. The crispy fried dough cakes (paopao yougao) from Hui Muslim master Shan Yun.

13. The oil tea (youcha) with fried dough twists (you mahua) from Hui Muslim master Ma Laohan.

14. The cured lamb bones (la yang gutou) from Hui Muslim master Sha Tianning, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

15. The lamb offal soup (yangzasui tang) with fried dough twists (mahua) from Hui Muslim master Sha.

16. The Xinjiang cold noodles (liangmian) from Hui Muslim master Ma Wenyi.

17. The rolled fried milk (gunjian niunai) from Hui Muslim master He Cai, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

18. The braised lamb head (lu yangtou) from Hui Muslim master Li Furen.

19. The beef with garlic (niurou bansuan) from the Hui Muslim brothers of the Old Bao family.

20. The peppercorn chicken (jiaoma ji) from Hui Muslim master Song.

21. The layered steamed bread (youtazi) from Hui Muslim master Qi Fengming.

22. The lamb meat (yanggao rou) from Hui Muslim master Wuwuzi.

23. The Zhongyiguan Restaurant founded by Hui Muslim master Ma Dawu, whose ancestral home was Shaanxi.

24. The Tiger Restaurant (Laohu Guanzi) run by Hui Muslim master Jia Shijun, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

25. The halal pastry shop (qingzhen dianxin pu) run by Hui Muslim master She Wenbing, whose ancestral home was Lantian, Shaanxi.

26. The Zhenxinglong Water Mill (shuimo) opened by Hui Muslim Yang Zhenchun, whose ancestral home was Linxia, Gansu.

27. The Hui Muslim electrician Ma Hailong, whose ancestral home was Gangu County, Tianshui, Gansu.

28. The Starch Noodle Street (Fentiao Jie) outside the South Gate of Urumqi.

29. Ningxia Bay, located east of the South Gate (Nanguan) in Urumqi.

30. Imam (Ahong) Ma Liangjun.

31. The Wanxinglong Halal Chinese and Western Pastry Shop opened by Hui Muslim manager Ma Wanxiao.

32. The cured mutton in steamed buns (la yangrou jia zhengmo) from Hui Muslim master Nian Shenghua.

33. The date crystal cake (zaojing gao) of the Urumqi Hui Muslims.

34. The steamed bun shop (momo fang) of Hui Muslim Cai Huasheng, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

35. The Dazishizi Mutton Pita Soup (yangrou paomo) restaurant opened in the 1950s.



1. The camel caravan of Hui Muslim Yang Zhong, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

Master Yang Zhong was a Hui Muslim from Xi'an. He walked from Xi'an to Urumqi for two and a half years around 1880 and spent over 40 years running a camel transport business in Urumqi. Master Yang Zhong had nearly a hundred fat and strong camels, and he also owned his own camel farm and fodder yard in Jinjiawan, Xiaodongliang, Urumqi. Yang Zhong's camel caravan mainly transported passengers and goods from Urumqi to Kashgar, Yining, Tacheng, and Altay, with occasional business to Hohhot. When his camels were grazing in the distance, they would automatically return to the camp if they saw the tents being taken down, and at night, the lead camel would stop automatically if it could not hear the camel bells behind it.



2. The open-air teahouse run by Hui Muslim master Han Shila.

Master Han Shila set up a stall to sell tea at various temple fairs in Urumqi, using a high-roofed shelter with long tables and high stools. He served Hunan dark tea (fuzhuan) and brick tea in large porcelain pots, and brewed West Lake Longjing, Yunnan Pu'er, Anhui Qimen, and the Hunan smoked tea that Hui Muslims love in lidded bowls (gaiwancha). He used sweet, clear spring water from the Tianshan Mountains to brew the tea and a copper stove similar to a hot pot, called a samovar (shamawa), to boil the water. He also provided Soviet sugar cubes, black melon seeds, peanuts, dried fruits, and the longan and red dates that Hui Muslims use to make three-ingredient tea (sanpaotai). When refilling tea, Master Han Shila practiced the 'snowflake covering the top' technique, which meant lifting the copper pot high behind or above the customer's head to pour water into the bowl. Just as it was about to overflow, he would flick his right wrist, and the spout would stop dripping completely, clean and precise.



3. The cold starch noodles (liangpi) made by Hui Muslim master Han Youcai, whose ancestral home was Qinghai.

Han Youcai was born in the 1910s. His grandfather came to Urumqi from Qinghai in his early years and made a living selling cold starch noodles (liangpi), and now the family is in its third generation. By the 1930s, when he was in his 20s, Han Youcai was already well-known to the people of Urumqi, and he continued his business for over 50 years until the 1980s. Han Youcai carried a liangpi stall on his shoulders to sell along the street all year round. In winter, steam rose from both ends of his carrying pole; the liangpi sat on a steamer, and the vinegar sauce was kept in a copper pot, giving hot liangpi a unique flavor. In the summer, he also sold cold jelly noodles (liangfen), using a scraper to press the jelly blocks into round noodles, making and selling them on the spot.



4. The fermented oat porridge (tianpeizi) from Hui Muslim master Shan.

In the 1930s and 1940s, it was very popular in Urumqi to eat fermented glutinous rice (tianpeizi) in the summer. At that time, Master Dan, who worked near the Caishen Tower in the Nanguan area of Urumqi, had the best business. He carried a large porcelain basin of tianpeizi on his shoulders, covered with white gauze, and sold it along the street. When selling, he would serve the tianpeizi in small porcelain bowls, half wheat grains and half soup.



5. The cold mixed starch sheet noodles (liangban fenpi) from Hui Muslim master Yang Hengkui, whose ancestral home was Fengxiang, Shaanxi.

Master Yang's cold noodle shop in the Nanguan area of Urumqi was famous throughout the city from the 1930s to the 1950s. To make the cold noodles, he used high-quality mung bean flour to create noodles that were both white and thin. Various condiments like chili oil, garlic oil, sesame paste, mustard oil, Sichuan peppercorn oil, vinegar sauce infused with black cardamom, and chopped tender celery were all served in large red flower-patterned bowls. Master Yang used nine-inch large flat plates to serve the noodles, mixed with various seasonings, making them smooth and refreshing to eat.



6. The leaf-shaped noodle shop (yezimian guan) run by Hui Muslim master Liu Wanchun, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

Liu Wanchun's great-grandfather, Liu Gong, and his brother Liu Ping came to Urumqi from Xi'an around 1860 to run a halal snack business, and Liu Wanchun was the fourth generation. Liu Wanchun's leaf noodle (yezimian) shop was located near the poultry market outside the Great West Gate of Urumqi and stayed open until the public-private partnership reform in 1956. After 1956, Liu Wanchun served as the manager of the Urumqi Catering Service Company's cooperative canteen and passed away in the 1960s. Liu Wanchun knew how to make thousand-layer oil cakes, sugar twists, fried dough cakes, various pastries, and cold noodles, and was especially skilled at making leaf noodles and wontons. Leaf noodles, also called alkaline noodles (jianmian), were hand-rolled to be one centimeter wide, very thin, and translucent, and were taken out of the pot as soon as the water boiled. The soup was made by boiling chicken and lamb bones with galangal, black cardamom, fennel, Sichuan peppercorn, and ginger skin, resulting in a delicious flavor. He would then pour a topping made of diced lamb and mushrooms over the noodles, which everyone loved.



7. The egg fermented rice soup (jidan laozhao) and tofu pudding (doufunao) from Hui Muslim master Ma.

Master Ma was very tall and wore a small black mustache. Every morning, he carried a fermented rice wine (laozao) stall to set up in front of the Gao Jiwang grocery store at Erdaoqiao in Nanguan (now South Heping Road). He also sold fried dough twists (mahua) and his only call was 'Laozao is boiling'. The fermented rice wine he made was sweet and thick, and adding a swirled egg made it taste even more wonderful. In the afternoon, Master Ma would sell tofu pudding (doufunao) around the Caishen Tower in Nanguan. He kept a small mule at home and ground the tofu himself every day, which was very hard work. The sauce for his tofu pudding was made with lamb broth, containing wood ear mushrooms, cauliflower, vermicelli, and gluten, topped with chili oil and diced pickles, giving it a unique taste.



8. The cured mutton (la yangrou) from Hui Muslim master Zhou, known as Fatty Sanwa (Pang Sanwa).

Master Zhou once opened a cured lamb shop near the Caishen Tower in Nanguan. It had two storefronts facing east, specializing in three-leaf bread (sanyebing) stuffed with cured lamb, as well as hand-rolled leaf noodle soup. Old customers always liked to call Master Zhou by his nickname, 'Fat Sanwa,' so the place gradually became known as the Fat Sanwa Restaurant. When a customer wanted cured lamb, Master Zhou would put the cold meat into the three-leaf bread and bake it in an oven. When it came out, the bread was crispy, the meat was fragrant, and it was full of flavor.



9. The yogurt (suannai zi) and shaved ice (xuehua liang) from Hui Muslim master Ding Wanfu.

Before the liberation, Master Ding Wanfu sold yogurt (suannai) near the Caishen Tower in Nanguan using two large red round carrying boxes. Ding Wanfu keeps his own cows and feeds them mostly on oil dregs, which makes the milk rich and creamy. To ferment the yogurt (suannai), cover it tightly and place it on a warm earthen bed (kang) for six or seven hours, making sure to control the temperature. The finished yogurt looks like milk tofu in the bowl, topped with a layer of yellow cream, and it won't spill even if you turn the bowl upside down. In the summer, Master Ding follows tradition to make homemade snowflake cool (xuehualiang), which is a type of ice cream. He puts boiling water, egg whites, sugar, and flavoring into a large white tin bucket, then places that bucket inside a large wooden barrel with a 10-centimeter gap around it filled with ice. He uses a rope to spin the tin bucket, and after two hours of friction, the sugar water inside turns into ice cream. When eating, buy a bowl of yogurt and add a scoop of snowflake cool; it is sweet, sour, cold, and perfect for cooling down. Master Ding calls out while selling: "Ah! It's cold and clears the heat! If it's not cold, it's free! Ah! Come and cool off!" "



10. The crystal cake (jingjing gao) from Hui Muslim master She Yafang, whose ancestral home was Lantian, Shaanxi.

Master She Yafang, whose family is from Lantian, Shaanxi, pushes a clean cart with her husband, Master Ma Yunhua, to sell crystal cakes (jingjinggao), also known as steamed pear cakes (shuligao), and cold fruit slices outside the South Gate of Urumqi, north of the current South Gate Garden. Master She handles the cooking, and Master Ma handles the sales. In winter and spring, the elderly couple makes, steams, and sells them right on the street. The front of the cart has a rectangular crystal-blue wooden box with a glass lid, containing steamed premium rice flour and various fillings like white sugar, banana, rose, hawthorn, and bean paste. The middle of the cart has a stove at the bottom with a round steamer on top. There are four long hollow wooden round molds and one small iron mold; to steam, first put a layer of rice flour on the iron mold, add the sweet filling, then add a layer of light red and light green rice flour, and place the mold over the steam vent. The finished crystal cake is a round, soft pastry that looks like a blooming flower on a small plate; it is soft, sandy, fragrant, and sweet when eaten with a small fork.



11. The spiced cured lamb hooves (hu la yangti) from Hui Muslim master Mu Laoba, whose ancestral home was Tianjin.

Master Mu Laoba is from Tianjin and speaks with an authentic Tianjin accent; he is a chubby, white-haired old man with a handlebar mustache who always speaks politely to elders, which is pleasant to hear. Every noon, Master Mu carries two boxes of spiced lamb trotters (hula yangti) to sell at a fixed spot outside the South Gate market in Urumqi. To make them, he mixes the trotters with soy sauce, salt, rock sugar, long pepper, galangal, cinnamon, cloves, ginger skin, Sichuan peppercorns, fennel, and black cardamom, then simmers them with alternating high and low heat until the meat is tender, falling off the bone, and very fragrant.



12. The crispy fried dough cakes (paopao yougao) from Hui Muslim master Shan Yun.

Master Shan Yun used to sell bubble oil cakes (paopao yougao) outside the West Gate chicken and duck market in Urumqi. The bubble oil cakes in Urumqi are round fried sugar cakes with thin, wing-like edges, about 6 centimeters in diameter and 3 centimeters wide, filled with white sugar, green and red silk, walnuts, and sesame, with a hint of banana flavor; they are crispy on the outside, soft on the inside, and shaped like bubbles, leaving thin, crispy crumbs on your lips when eaten hot. You must master the heat for frying the cakes; Master Shan used to test the oil temperature with his index finger, a skill that beginners need to practice many times to get right.



13. The oil tea (youcha) with fried dough twists (you mahua) from Hui Muslim master Ma Laohan.

Old Man Ma used to have a stall selling oil tea (youcha) at the South Gate market in Urumqi. His oil tea is made from sheep fat and flour, with raisins, walnuts, roasted peanuts, and chopped sheep tail fat. To make it, he fries the rendered sheep fat with flour until it turns light yellow, pours it into a basin, mixes it with water in a one-to-three ratio, simmers it over low heat, and adds salt, raisins, and other seasonings once it becomes a thin paste. Old Man Ma keeps the oil tea in a large porcelain basin, topped with a few sugar twists (mahua), and keeps it warm over a low flame. He adds the twists as he sells; a bowl of oil tea served in a fine red-flowered porcelain bowl with a twist is fragrant, soft, and delicious, with crunchy peanuts and walnuts.



14. The cured lamb bones (la yang gutou) from Hui Muslim master Sha Tianning, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

Master Sha Tianning, originally from Xi'an, sells spiced lamb bones (la yanggutou) every noon at a shop next to the God of Wealth building in the South Gate area of Urumqi. He brings out the steaming, fragrant spiced lamb bones in a large white tin basin. Most customers bring their own enamel basins to buy them. The way to eat spiced lamb bones is to first eat the meat on the bone, then use a chopstick to poke out the bone marrow and suck it out; it is incredibly delicious and leaves a long-lasting aftertaste. Master Sha Tianning uses the Hui Muslim method of braised meat (fenrou). He cuts the lamb rack, washes it, puts it in the pot at once, and simmers it in a spiced broth (lutang) over low heat until the meat is tender, bright in color, and delicious.



15. The lamb offal soup (yangzasui tang) with fried dough twists (mahua) from Hui Muslim master Sha.

Master Sha once set up a stall at Nanguan Caishen Louzi to sell lamb offal soup (yangzasui tang). He used a white cloth tent and a large Soviet-style enamel basin filled with soup, kept warm by a smokeless coal stove underneath. A few twisted fried dough sticks (mahua) floated on the steaming soup, and the aroma was mouth-watering. Master Sha braised cleaned lamb head meat, liver, lungs, tripe, heart, and trotters in spiced broth. After cooling, he sliced them into small strips, then soaked them in fresh meat broth over low heat, keeping the soup clear and the meat tender. The twisted fried dough sticks (mahua) soaked in the soup became soft and crispy.



16. The Xinjiang cold noodles (liangmian) from Hui Muslim master Ma Wenyi.

Master Ma Wenyi was known as a chubby young man in his youth. His ancestors made a living by making cold noodles (liangmian), and he ran a cold noodle stall outside Daxi Men in Urumqi from the 1930s to the early 1950s. He used alkaline ash (penghui) to knead the dough, pulling the noodles into even, thin strands that did not break. He paid close attention to the heat when boiling them, ensuring they were firm yet chewy. The oily, yellow noodles (huangmian) arranged on the plate looked like a blooming golden chrysanthemum. The cold noodle sauce used an egg-based vegetarian gravy with celery as a garnish, making the dish look, smell, and taste excellent. Master Ma also served braised lamb offal. If you wanted meat, he would slice a small plate and add some broth to the cold noodles, which was amazing. His stuffed lamb offal sausage was especially rich and delicious. Master Ma Wenyi could prepare the traditional Hui Muslim banquet known as Nine Bowls and Three Rows (jiuwan sanxingzi), as well as the Eight Big Dishes and Four Big Bowls banquets. In 1956, he joined a public-private partnership and worked as a chef at the Urumqi Food Service Company's halal cooperative canteen on Wenyi Road, near the current People's Cinema. He was famous and praised as the King of Cold Noodles in Xinjiang.



17. The rolled fried milk (gunjian niunai) from Hui Muslim master He Cai, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

Master He Cai, originally from Xi'an and known as Fatty He, was a chubby old man with white hair and a long beard. Before the 1940s, he sold steaming fresh milk at a stall on the southeast corner of the Nanguan Caishen Louzi intersection in Urumqi. Master He went out very early every day to sell milk, and he also had sugar-coated twisted fried dough sticks (mahua) ready. He raised his own cows and sold the milk fresh right after milking. When preparing it, he boiled the milk over low heat, constantly stirring it with a ladle. He served the boiled milk in a bowl with a pinch of salt, and soon a layer of milk skin (naipizi) would form on top. When he was young, Master He carried his milk stall through the streets. His shouting had a strong Shaanxi accent, and his voice was loud, starting with an 'Ai' before calling out 'Gun jian de' (boiling hot).



18. The braised lamb head (lu yangtou) from Hui Muslim master Li Furen.

From the 1920s to the 1940s, Master Li Furen pushed a handcart through the streets near the Nanguan Shaomenzi gate in Urumqi every morning at 8 o'clock to sell his goods. The cart's counter was filled with steaming braised lamb head, as well as braised lamb tripe, liver, lungs, trotters, and heart, all smelling delicious. Master Li's braised lamb head broth was delicious, and the meat fell off the bone without falling apart. It included soft meat, bone-in meat, cartilage, and fatty meat. The two lamb eyes were especially like two oil gourds, rich but not greasy. His braised lamb trotters were very tender and smooth. All the lamb offal was cleaned thoroughly, and even his small cart for the braised products was clean and attractive. Master Li would shout, 'Lamb liver!' Lamb lungs! Hey! Lamb head and tripe—', and his calls could be heard throughout the streets and alleys.



19. The beef with garlic (niurou bansuan) from the Hui Muslim brothers of the Old Bao family.

In the 1940s, the two Lao Bao brothers lived near the Yaowang Temple in the Nanguan area of Urumqi. They made cold noodles (liangpi), lamb offal soup, and other snacks, with beef mixed with garlic being their signature dish. Later, the brothers decided to focus exclusively on selling beef mixed with garlic, operating from a fixed spot at Nanguan Caishen Louzi. Every noon, the brothers filled their handcart with steaming, dark red braised beef, including brisket, head meat, tripe, liver, and trotters. They specifically stacked the braised tripe together, and after it cooled, it formed a round block. When selling, they used a knife to slice it from top to bottom, turning it into tripe shreds. A ceramic jar held minced garlic soaked in high-quality vinegar. When you bought a plate of mixed beef and poured a few spoonfuls of the vinegar and garlic over it, the taste was unforgettable.



20. The peppercorn chicken (jiaoma ji) from Hui Muslim master Song.

Master Song lived in Xiaodongliang, Urumqi (now the Heping South Road area). Every day near noon, he would carry his pole and bring the oily, yellow, and bright pepper-numbing chicken (jiaoma ji) he had made to sell at Nanguan Caishen Louzi. Master Song was a short old man, and regular customers jokingly called him Song the Shorty. Master Song chose chickens weighing over a kilogram. After cleaning them, he rubbed Sichuan peppercorn powder and salt over the chicken, marinated it for 20 minutes, and then simmered it in a spiced broth (lutang) over low heat. The broth contained thirteen-spice (shisanxiang). When selling, the chicken's thighs and breasts are split down the middle, which is called the four big pieces. The two wings, the neck, and the tail are divided into four small pieces. Half a basin of braising broth (lutang) is kept warm in a large porcelain basin; in winter, there is a coal fire underneath, and in summer, it is served cold. Master Song uses a small, fine porcelain dish with red flower patterns to serve a chicken thigh, then pours two small spoonfuls of broth over it, making the flavor incredibly rich.



21. The layered steamed bread (youtazi) from Hui Muslim master Qi Fengming.

Master Qi Fengming's small restaurant is located next to the east side of the City God Temple on West Street in Urumqi, featuring two large storefronts and a workshop in the back. The restaurant serves oil towers (youtazi) and lamb-filled steamed buns (baozi) every morning. Master Qi's oil towers are shaped like small, round oil cakes. When eating, you use chopsticks to peel back the skin and lift it up, revealing thin, translucent, spiral-shaped layers that glisten with oil. Master Qi's hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) and stir-fried noodles (chaomian) are also very famous. Every noon, the restaurant staff is incredibly busy, and the room is filled with shouts in a Shaanxi accent: 'Two small plates of meat (xiao banjin) coming up!' Stick noodles (gun gun mian)! Twenty small ones! (Two large plates) and one order of stir-fried noodles to go! Make sure to stir-fry them well! The kitchen staff immediately replies, 'Ah!' Coming right up! "



22. The lamb meat (yanggao rou) from Hui Muslim master Wuwuzi.

Li Zhanxiang, known as Wuwuzi, set up a stall to sell cooked lamb at Nanshaomenzi in the Nanguan area of Urumqi (now north of South Jiefang Road). Every morning, he goes to the market to buy sheep, specifically choosing two-year-old lambs. He brings them back to slaughter and clean them himself before boiling them in a pot, selling three or four sheep a day. When a new customer arrives, Wuwuzi cuts two slices of cooked lamb liver, sandwiches a slice of cooked, thin lamb tail fat inside, sprinkles on some salt, and lets the customer taste it before making a sale.



I just ate Wuwuzi lamb at Shanxi Alley in Urumqi this past May Day. Wuwuzi's father was named Li Shenghua (Li Liushizi). He started carrying lamb on a shoulder pole to sell at the South Gate of Urumqi in 1907. After the 1980s, Wuwuzi rented a storefront in Shanxi Alley. It has now been passed down for four generations and is recognized as an intangible cultural heritage at the autonomous region level.











23. The Zhongyiguan Restaurant founded by Hui Muslim master Ma Dawu, whose ancestral home was Shaanxi.

Zhongyiguan Restaurant is located near the Guanyinge Pavilion on the slope of Wangye Temple in Urumqi. It was founded in 1914 by Ma Dawu, who was originally from Shaanxi and was a professionally trained chef specializing in flour-based dishes. The restaurant started with only two earthen bungalows, serving steamed buns, oil towers, hand-pulled noodles, butterfly noodles (die mian—small pieces of dough pinched by hand that look like butterflies flying over the pot), stir-fried noodles, noodle soup, small stir-fry dishes, as well as large and small plates of meat, fried meat slices (jiesha), pork tenderloin, and meatballs. The Guanyinge Temple Fair falls on the 18th day of the third lunar month every year, which is when the restaurant is busiest.

In 1923, the restaurant expanded its dining hall and officially hung up the Zhongyiguan sign. Ma Dawu's sons, Ma Yanfu and Ma Yanlu, also grew up to be famous chefs specializing in both flour and meat dishes. At this time, Zhongyiguan Restaurant began catering banquets, with the most popular dishes being spicy lamb tendons, braised lamb, spicy diced chicken, sweet and sour fish, oil-seared meat (guoyou rou), stir-fried meat slices, pearl gluten, and signature tofu. Zhongyiguan ended the history of Urumqi halal restaurants only serving snacks and became the most famous large halal restaurant in Urumqi. In 1944, Zhongyiguan moved to East Street, and business improved even further until the public-private partnership in 1956.



24. The Tiger Restaurant (Laohu Guanzi) run by Hui Muslim master Jia Shijun, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

Master Jia Shijun, originally from Xi'an, started as an apprentice in Xi'an as a teenager. In the late Qing Dynasty, he opened the halal Shiheguan Restaurant in Beiliang, Urumqi. It was later inherited by his son, Jia Shanping, and remained in business until the 1940s. Because Jia Shijun was nicknamed 'Tiger,' the place was also called the Tiger Restaurant. The Tiger Restaurant was famous for its authentic Shaanxi-style cured lamb sandwiches (layangrou jia san ye bing) and lamb pita soup (paomo). For the cured lamb, fresh lamb is first placed in a vat to marinate in salt water, then braised in a pot until it is tender and soft. The three-leaf bread (san ye bing) is made with semi-leavened dough, layered like a thousand-layer cake, seasoned with spices and oil, and then baked. For the lamb pita soup at the Tiger Restaurant, customers could choose any part of the lamb, and Jia Shijun would cook it himself. At that time, most of the chefs and staff at the Tiger Restaurant were Hui Muslims from Shaanxi. As soon as a customer entered, the counter clerk would immediately shout, 'Give them a bowl, for three people!' The waiter would immediately respond, seat the guests, pour tea, and once the order was placed, he would shout to the kitchen in Shaanxi dialect: 'Pita soup!' Three, two with rib meat, and one bowl with the fattier kind. Make it as fast as you can! Fill the car up with gas! The chef immediately replied: 'Coming!' It will be very fast, it will be here in a flash! "



25. The halal pastry shop (qingzhen dianxin pu) run by Hui Muslim master She Wenbing, whose ancestral home was Lantian, Shaanxi.

Master She Wenbing, originally from Lantian, Shaanxi, was a famous pastry chef back home. In the 1920s and 1930s, he had a storefront at the northeast corner of the intersection of Toudao Lane and Yucai Lane outside the South Gate of Urumqi. In the 1940s, he moved to the northeast corner of the Caishen Louzi intersection in Nanguan, expanded to two large storefronts, and added a workshop in the back. Master She was skilled at designing and carving pastry molds, making treats that looked, smelled, and tasted wonderful. His fried pastries and sugar-mixed pastries were oily but not greasy, with a rich scallion aroma. Traditional fried dough twists (sanzi) are made by kneading white flour, vegetable oil, eggs, Sichuan peppercorn water, and salt. When frying, you must control the heat so every twist is the same thickness and length, then stack them high on a large tray like a blooming golden chrysanthemum in a flower basket. The rice flour strips (jiangmitiao) Master She made were hollow inside, light, and crispy. Every year during Eid al-Adha and Eid al-Fitr, the pastry shop could not keep up with demand and customers had to place orders in advance. In the 1930s, Master She became close friends with Master Liu Wenjiang from the Jinmen Yongsheng Western Pastry Shop in Urumqi, which is why the flaky Beijing-style pastries (jing bajian) he made were unique among halal pastries.



26. The Zhenxinglong Water Mill (shuimo) opened by Hui Muslim Yang Zhenchun, whose ancestral home was Linxia, Gansu.

Yang Zhenxing and his father walked from their hometown of Linxia to Hutubi County around the 1860s, making a living by driving ox carts. Soon they went to Urumqi to transport grain, and around 1888, they built the Zhenxinglong water mill on the canal at Hexi Street in Urumqi, becoming one of the largest and most experienced millers in the city. Besides the original water mill building on Hexi Street, Zhenxinglong later built another one downstream from the West Bridge. Each mill had two stone water-powered millstones running day and night to process flour, with over 10 employees and horse-drawn carriages dedicated to delivering the flour. At that time, farmers in the suburbs were happy to bring their own wheat to Zhenxinglong to be processed into flour.



27. The Hui Muslim electrician Ma Hailong, whose ancestral home was Gangu County, Tianshui, Gansu.

Ma Hailong lived in Ningxiawan, Urumqi, for generations and started making a living driving a carriage at age 15. In 1937, at age 21, Ma Hailong signed up as an apprentice at the Urumqi Xinguang Electric Company, becoming one of the first generation of Hui Muslim electricians in Urumqi. At that time, shops at the Great Cross in Urumqi and many homes outside the city walls wanted to install electric lights. Ma Hailong started by working under his master and soon began working independently. Every day he carried his iron climbing hooks, traveling everywhere and climbing poles, earning him the nickname 'Urumqi's Living Circuit Diagram'.



28. The Starch Noodle Street (Fentiao Jie) outside the South Gate of Urumqi.

There was a small north-south street east of the South Gate barbican in Urumqi. Most of the businesses on the street were starch workshops run by Hui Muslim masters, so it was also called Starch Noodle Street (fentiao jie). Every house on Starch Noodle Street had a row of wooden racks on the roof. In winter, they hung starch noodles to freeze, and in summer, they dried them. They also made starch blocks (fenkuai) and starch powder (fenmian), all using pure bean starch. Every time Hui Muslims celebrated a holiday, every household ate starch noodle soup (fentang), which required starch blocks. When summer arrived, Starch Noodle Street was full of shops selling snacks like cold starch jelly (liangfen), cold tossed starch sheets (liangban fenpi), and fish-shaped cold jelly (yu liangfen). The most famous person on Starch Noodle Street back then was a Hui Muslim named Guo Yingzhen (known as Guo Laosan), whose starch workshop was the largest and most productive.



29. Ningxia Bay, located east of the South Gate (Nanguan) in Urumqi.

Ningxiawan in Urumqi is located east of Nanguan, south of Yaowangmiao Street to Huangcheng Street, and from west of Heijiashan to Zuogong South Road. This area was originally sparsely populated, a large crescent-shaped depression with a canal circling the top, making it suitable for growing all kinds of vegetables. During the Qianlong reign of the Qing Dynasty, the Xihai-Gu region of Ningxia suffered a flood, and more than 250 Hui Muslim farmers from two villages migrated to this depression. They cleared the land, grew vegetables, opened handicraft workshops, and did small business to make a living, so people started calling the place Ningxiawan. Hui Muslim vegetable farmers in Ningxiawan included families like Ma Chenglin, Ma Fu, Niu Zhaokui, and Widow Yang. Their hard work made Ningxiawan an important vegetable base for Urumqi, and people in Urumqi were always happy to buy reliable vegetables from Ningxiawan.



30. Imam (Ahong) Ma Liangjun.

Imam Ma Liangjun was originally from Zhangjiachuan, Gansu. In 1913, he became the imam of the Shaanxi Great Mosque in Hami. After 1933, he led religious affairs at the Shaanxi Great Mosque, Qinghai Mosque, and Guyuan Mosque in Urumqi, and once served as the General Imam of Hui Muslims in Xinjiang. From 1940 to 1943, Imam Ma Liangjun was imprisoned by Sheng Shicai for three years. In prison, he persisted in writing and authored works such as 'Arabic-Chinese Muhammadan Poetry' and 'Research on the History of Islam'. In prison, Imam Ma shared a cell with the famous film actor Zhao Dan. To take care of Zhao Dan, he shared the daily necessities his family sent into the prison with him, and the two later formed a friendship forged in hardship.



31. The Wanxinglong Halal Chinese and Western Pastry Shop opened by Hui Muslim manager Ma Wanxiao.

In 1920, manager Ma Wanxiao opened the Wanxinglong Halal Chinese and Western pastry shop at the east end of Shanxi Lane in Nanguan, Urumqi. It had two large storefronts facing north, and the workshop in the backyard produced goods for direct sale. Wanxinglong hired Yao Zhenghe, a master baker from Yangliuqing, Tianjin, who was trained in the Tianjin style. Because of this, their Chinese pastries were traditional Tianjin-style treats. These included large and small eight-piece pastry sets (da bajian, xiao bajian), sesame flatbreads (zhima bing), sponge cakes (caozi gao), sachima, Furong cakes, seasonal mung bean cakes (lvdou gao), Mid-Autumn mooncakes, and assorted sweet rice balls (yuanxiao). People of all ethnic groups in Urumqi loved to serve these on their tables during holidays. In 1944, Wanxinglong hired Sui Hefu, a Shandong-born master baker who had returned from the Soviet Union. This led to the addition of Russian-style Western halal pastries. This was the first halal pastry shop in Urumqi to sell both Chinese and Western goods.



32. The cured mutton in steamed buns (la yangrou jia zhengmo) from Hui Muslim master Nian Shenghua.

Master Nian Huasheng, known as Old Nian the Fourth, was a thin, tall man. From the 1930s to the 1950s, he set up a stall every noon in Caishenlou Lane in Nanguan, Urumqi. He pushed a yellow cart carrying a steaming pot of cured lamb (la yangrou) and a pot of steamed leavened lotus leaf buns (heye bing), all covered with white gauze. The cured lamb was made by braising it in a pot with high-quality soy sauce, Sichuan peppercorns, star anise, cloves, cinnamon, ginger skin, and black pepper, all wrapped in white gauze. He would cut the cured lamb into small pieces, tuck them into the steamed lotus leaf buns, and drizzle a little braising broth over them. It tasted soft, fresh, tender, and fatty without being greasy.



33. The date crystal cake (zaojing gao) of the Urumqi Hui Muslims.

In the early years, many Hui Muslims pushed carts through the streets and alleys of Urumqi selling date crystal cakes (zaojing gao). They kept them covered with white gauze and called out, 'Hey... date crystal cakes... hey, white sugar date crystal cakes...' In summer, people loved these cold, sweet, and sticky cakes, especially around the Dragon Boat Festival. Date crystal cakes were made with high-quality glutinous rice, large red dates, raisins, walnut kernels, and shredded green and red candied fruit (qinghong si). First, the glutinous rice was soaked in cold water for a day or two, with frequent water changes. Then, it was steamed in a basket until it became a cake. The soaked red dates, raisins, crushed walnut kernels, and glutinous rice cake were mixed evenly and spread out. After cooling, green and red candied fruit was sprinkled on top. When eating, people would add white sugar or syrup.



34. The steamed bun shop (momo fang) of Hui Muslim Cai Huasheng, whose ancestral home was Xi'an.

In the 1920s and 1930s, Master Cai Huasheng ran a large food shop on Beiliang in Urumqi that specialized in various steamed buns (momo). It had a large storefront facing north and a workshop in the back. They sold hot steamed buns (re zhengmo), twisted rolls (huajuan), deep-fried sugar twists (tang mahua), fried dough cakes (youxiang), ox-tongue pastries (niushe bing), dry flour flatbreads (guokui), fried flatbreads (you guokui), gourd-shaped flatbreads (hulu guokui), flaky pastries (yousu mo), and flowering steamed buns (kaihua mo). From morning until night, the shop was filled with steam and a constant stream of customers.



35. The Dazishizi Mutton Pita Soup (yangrou paomo) restaurant opened in the 1950s.

In 1955, the Urumqi Catering Company opened a state-run lamb pita bread soup (yangrou paomo) restaurant south of the road east of Dashizi. It had three large flat-roofed storefronts, with a dining hall in the front and a kitchen in the back. The restaurant hired several highly skilled Hui Muslim masters from Xi'an, including Ma Fengming, who managed the braised bread, He Chengwen, who made dry flour flatbreads in a special oven, and Ma Junliang and An Shiquan, who served customers. Before eating, the waiter would bring a small dish of pickled garlic, chili sauce, and cilantro. Customers would then wash their hands and break the dry flour flatbread into small pieces—the smaller, the better. The finished lamb pita bread soup was served in a large bowl containing fatty and lean lamb slices, flatbread, and vermicelli. When eating, it was important to 'nibble like a silkworm.' You shouldn't stir the bowl; instead, you had to eat from the edges toward the center, bite by bite, to fully enjoy the flavor.

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Summary: Yuxi Najia Ying — Hui Muslims, Mosques and Yunnan Travel is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Author: Zainab. The account keeps its focus on Yuxi Travel, Hui Muslims, Yunnan Mosques while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Author: Zainab

On October 4, I traveled 23 kilometers east from Da Hui Village in Tonghai, Yuxi, to reach the famous Najiaying. The Na family of Najiaying are descendants of Nasr al-Din, the eldest son of the famous Yuan Dynasty official Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din. Nasr al-Din served as the administrator of Yunnan Province and continued his father's work in governing the region. After the Ming Dynasty was established, Nasr al-Din's descendant, Na Shulu, moved around for a while before settling on the north shore of Qilu Lake in central Yunnan in 1370, where he founded Najiaying.

That evening, I ate dry-pot beef at Zhiweiyuan Restaurant on Zhong'ai Street, the main road in Najiaying. It came in a huge copper pot filled with mint and arrowhead (cigu). I also had some lighter dishes: a mix of green beans and corn (liangmu di) and stir-fried cabbage with tofu.















On October 5, I had breakfast in Najiaying, Yuxi, eating potato pancakes (yangyu baba) and beef rice rolls (niurou juanfen).



















At the Najiaying market, I ate buckwheat cake (qiaogao), which was delicious.



















I visited the former residence of Na Xun, the famous Arabic translator who translated One Thousand and One Nights. The house is still occupied by Na Xun's grandnephew, an elderly man named Na Zhaoxiang. He warmly invited us in for tea and told us stories about Na Xun.

Na Xun's great-uncle, Na Fengchun, held a high-ranking position as a third-rank official, but his grandfather and father were both farmers.

Na Xun was born in 1911 and began attending the primary school inside the Najiaying mosque at age seven. The school used a modern curriculum that taught both Chinese and Arabic. They hired a teacher named Qian for Chinese and a teacher named Dai for math, while the Arabic classes were taught by Imam Ma Defu from the Najiaying mosque. Imam Ma Defu was an early student of the Yunnan Islamic scholar Ma Lianyuan and had a very strong foundation in religious studies.

Na Xun's home was just a few dozen steps south of the mosque. Every day when the adhan (bangke) sounded, he would get up and get ready. By the time his father returned from namaz, Na Xun was already prepared to go to school to review his lessons. According to Na Xun's cousin Na Guangxian, Na Xun never missed a class or arrived late, and he always ranked at the top of his exams.

In 1921, after Na Xun finished third grade, his cousin Na Guangwen returned from studying in Kunming. Seeing how bright Na Xun was, he asked Na Xun's father for permission to take him to Kunming for further education. His father agreed, and Na Xun left home to pursue his studies.

In 1926, bandits caused trouble in Najiaying. When the Yunnan provincial government troops came to suppress them, they burned down Najiaying, and Na Xun's home was reduced to ashes. Because Na Xun's eldest brother, Na Guangcheng, had been working in trade (zou yifang) and running a horse inn by the Lancang River in Simao, he had some savings, which allowed the family to rebuild their home on the original site.



















I continued on to visit the former residence of Professor Na Zhong, an expert in Arabic education and a leading figure in Arabic culture. Na Zhong wrote A General History of the Arabs and compiled the first Arabic language textbook for Chinese universities. The property is now rented out by Na Zhong's descendants.

Na Zhong's grandfather, Na Hai, had been a soldier for several years. He was not only skilled in martial arts but also a master of masonry, metalwork, and carpentry. While working in Kunming, he fell in love with a young lady named Cai. Miss Cai came from a prominent military family in Kunming, but she chose this poor young man who had no house and no money. To get married as soon as possible, Na Hai returned to his hometown of Najiaying and spent six months building his own house. The house was a traditional two-story Yunnan dwelling with three main rooms and four side rooms. It was built very neatly with exquisite wooden doors and windows. The pillars of the outer courtyard gate were carved from solid bluestone, featuring patterns of dragons playing with a pearl, magpies in plum blossoms, qilin and eagles, and golden bulls and horses. Na Hai and Miss Cai were married there and had their first son, Na Dechang.

In 1856, the Bingchen Incident occurred in Yunnan. Najiaying appointed Na Hai, Na Fengchun, and Na Taishou as representatives to negotiate with the Han scholar Gongsun Shuo from Dongxiang, reaching a mutual protection agreement between Hui Muslims and Han people in Hedong. In 1857, the mutual protection agreement in Hexi was broken by a local tyrant named Zhan Zhanchun, who gathered soldiers to attack the Great and Small Donggou (now known as Da Hui Village and Xiao Hui Village). Na Hai ignored the advice of his friends and family and went to try to stop the fighting, but he was killed by the enemy. After that, Miss Cai, who was seven months pregnant, took her eldest son Na Dechang back to her parents' home in Kunming. Shortly after, she gave birth to a posthumous child, Na Zhong's father, Na Degui. After the birth, Miss Cai suffered from illness and passed away shortly after.

After Miss Cai died, Na Hai's first wife, He, brought the brothers Na Dechang and Na Degui back to Najiaying to raise them. When Na Degui was 13, He became too ill to work, so she asked a relative to take Na Degui to Kunming to find work. Na Degui worked at a fur shop on Zhuji Street in Kunming. He was an apprentice for eight years, receiving only food and lodging with no wages. After finishing his apprenticeship, Na Degui married He Yufeng, the niece of his foster mother He, and they returned to Kunming to work after the wedding. In 1909, He Yufeng gave birth to Na Shou'en, who would later be known as Na Zhong.

When Na Zhong was one year old, his cousins saw that He Yufeng was struggling, so they carried Na Zhong and his family to Kunming to join Na Degui. That was how Na Zhong left Najiaying and began his life in Kunming. After that, Na Zhong rarely returned to his hometown, except for a two-month stay in 1940 to escape air raids in Kunming after he graduated from Al-Azhar University in Egypt.



















There is a water well at the entrance of Najiaying Mosque. It is said to have been built by Nasuluding, the great-grandson of the King of Xianyang, Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din, after he settled in Najiaying in the early Ming Dynasty. The wall of the well platform is carved with a dragon head, and the well water flows out from the dragon's mouth. People wash vegetables in the upper pool under the dragon's mouth, wash clothes in the lower pool, and finally, the water flows south to irrigate the farmland.









I bought a Nagu knife for cutting meat, and when I tried it at home, it was really sharp! It cuts through in one go without needing a second stroke. Historically, Najiaying and Gucheng were most famous for horse caravan transport, hunting rifle making, and knife making, but these trades declined as times changed. After the 1980s, Nagu Town began to vigorously develop the Nagu knife industry, and now there are many shops.







Also, on Zhenxing Road, there is a shop making traditional copperware, including copper pots and copper ladles. If you are interested, you can buy one to take home for a copper ladle hot pot.









To the north of Najiaying is Gucheng Village. The Xinzhai Mosque in the village was built by Ma Xuecheng, a disciple of Ma Mingxin, the founder of the Jahriyya menhuan. Ma Xuecheng was known as 'Yunnan Ma,' and followers of his sect respectfully called him the Third Master of Gucheng or Imam Ma Sanye. Ma Xuecheng was a local from Gucheng Village. He once went to study under Ma Mingxin, and the two were as close as father and son. After returning to Yunnan, Ma Xuecheng operated mining businesses, became a wealthy merchant, and was the first to spread the Jahriyya sect in Yunnan. In 1781, when Ma Mingxin's eldest son, Ma Shunqing, was exiled to Talang, Yunnan, Ma Xuecheng did his best to rescue and assist him, allowing the Jahriyya sect to continue developing in Yunnan.

It is a great pity that the mosque is currently being renovated. The courtyard layout is gone, the north and south wing rooms have been demolished, and only the main hall remains as the original building. When we went, the main hall was locked. We saw no one in the mosque except for workers, so we could not enter. It was a great regret not to see the Jahriyya-style Arabic calligraphy mihrab inside.

The main hall has a double-eave hanging mountain roof, with beautiful painted wood carvings on the brackets and beams, and openwork carvings between the eave pillars.













This last indoor photo was taken by a fellow Muslim (dost) a while ago. The bluestone under the mihrab was transported from Mojiang and has a history of over a hundred years.



At noon, we ate at Jingshanzhai in Najiaying, having herb sour soup chicken, goat milk cheese (yangrubing), stir-fried pumpkin seedlings, stir-fried celery with lily bulbs, and oil-drizzled beef jerky (niuganba). The restaurant has a nice, antique atmosphere.



















The decor at Jingshanzhai.













I bought a flatbread (balada) at the entrance of Najiaying Mosque, took it to Qilu Lake Xiaohai Park next to Najiaying, and bought a cup of papaya water at the entrance. Although the park is not big, the environment is very good, and there is a boardwalk by the lake, which is very pleasant for relaxing and catching a breeze.











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Reposted from the web

Summary: Khujand, Tajikistan — Night Walks, Food and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Khujand was the final stop on my 2019 Spring Festival trip through Central Asia. Although I only stayed for one night, it left me with many unforgettable memories. The account keeps its focus on Khujand Travel, Tajikistan Travel, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Khujand was the final stop on my 2019 Spring Festival trip through Central Asia. Although I only stayed for one night, it left me with many unforgettable memories.

Table of Contents

1. Heading to Khujand

2. A Tajik city in the Fergana Valley

3. The city of Cyrus and Alexander

4. Traditional Tajik hats

5. The Syr Darya River

6. Thursday Bazaar

7. Saint's tomb

8. Dinner

9. The uncle playing the accordion

10. Khujand night view

1. Heading to Khujand

On the morning of February 14, 2019, I was in Penjikent, a border city in the far west of Tajikistan, waiting for a shared taxi to the capital, Dushanbe. However, because of a blizzard the night before, the mountain road to Dushanbe, which sits at an altitude of over 3,000 meters, remained closed. After waiting all morning, I was told there was no hope of the road to Dushanbe opening that day. I changed my plans and decided to head to Khujand, Tajikistan's second-largest city.

Around noon, our car left Penjikent heading east, driving through the Zeravshan River valley. The Zeravshan River, formerly known as the Sughd River, is called the mother river of the Sogdians. It flows through the most important Sogdian cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Penjikent, where countless stories of the Sogdian people have unfolded.





An hour later, we moved from the Zeravshan River valley into the upper Zeravshan River gorge, where all vegetation disappeared.



Then we drove north, entered Tajikistan's main north-south highway, and began crossing the Turkestan mountain range. The Turkestan range has an average altitude of over 3,000 meters, with its highest peak reaching over 5,000 meters. As the altitude rose sharply, the temperature dropped suddenly and visibility became very low.



We finally crossed the Turkestan range, headed north into the Fergana Valley, and arrived in Khujand after four hours.



The driver dropped me off directly at the Khujand Grand Hotel I had booked on Booking.com. The receptionist was a young Russian woman. Her English wasn't very good, but we communicated using a mix of Russian and English words and eventually understood each other.



The suite I stayed in



I bought a wool coaster before I left

2. A Tajik city in the Fergana Valley

Khujand is located at the entrance to the Fergana Valley and is the only large city in the valley with a Tajik majority. After the Soviet Union redrew the borders of Central Asia in 1924, Khujand was incorporated into the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR).

When the establishment of a Tajik Autonomous Oblast within the Uzbek Republic was discussed in 1924, the issue of the Tajiks in the western Fergana Valley was already mentioned. But the prevailing view at the time was to include this land in the Uzbek Republic. This was because the Tajiks and Uzbeks here had deeply intertwined farmland and their economic ties were inseparable. the main point of contention at the time was the distinction between settled and nomadic peoples, so the conflict between the settled Uzbeks and Tajiks seemed insignificant. Although a Tajik subcommittee was set up within the territorial commission, it was actually very passive and simply agreed to the routes proposed by the Uzbek side.

However, after the Central Asian border demarcation ended, conflicts between the Uzbek and Tajik sides began to intensify. After 1926, the leaders and elites of the Tajik Autonomous Republic began to protest continuously, demanding to join the Soviet Union directly to ensure the normal development and cultural independence of the Tajik people. The Soviet Union agreed to this request. One reason was a concern about the dominant position of the Uzbek Republic in Central Asia, and another was the desire to use a "Tajik nation-state" to influence the Afghan civil war and attract the Tajiks of Afghanistan.

In 1929, the Tajik and Uzbek territorial demarcation commission began its work. The leaders of the Uzbek Republic quickly agreed to transfer the Khujand region, which was dominated by Tajiks in western Fergana, to the Tajik Republic, in order to gain the upper hand in the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara, which had large Tajik populations.

With Khujand incorporated into the Tajik Republic, the current territorial layout of Tajikistan was officially formed. This is why there is a protrusion on the north side of Tajikistan.



In 1927, blue represented the Uzbek SSR, and yellow represented the subordinate Tajik ASSR.



On today's map of Tajikistan, Khujand sits in a northern protrusion that reaches into the Fergana Valley.

3. The city of Cyrus and Alexander

From my hotel room window, I could see the most important historical site in Khujand: the Khujand Fortress.



Between 545 and 539 BC, the Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great led an eastern campaign into Central Asia and established the province of Sogdia in the Transoxiana region. To counter the Saka people on the north bank of the Syr Darya River, Cyrus the Great built seven cities on the south bank in 544 BC. The largest was called Cyropolis, which became one of the earliest and most famous cities of the Sogdians.

In 329 BC, the army of Alexander the Great entered the Transoxiana region. According to the Anabasis of Alexander, the Sogdians resisted the Greek army fiercely, and Alexander himself even suffered a broken leg from an arrow during the fighting. After reaching the south bank of the Syr Darya, Alexander used siege ladders and stone-throwing machines to capture five cities in a row before finally arriving at Cyropolis. The Greek army entered the city through a water channel beneath the walls, and about 8,000 residents were killed. Most of them were Sogdians defending the city.

After taking Cyropolis, Alexander built the furthest Greek city on its foundation, naming it Alexandria Eschate, and moved many Greeks there.

There is still no definitive evidence for the exact locations of Cyropolis and Alexandria Eschate, but the Khujand Fortress is the most likely site. Although the earliest visible walls of the Khujand Fortress date back no further than the 10th century AD, archaeological excavations show layers from the Hellenistic and ancient Persian periods beneath the walls, along with many unearthed Hellenistic coins and pottery.

The Khujand Fortress has been rebuilt many times in history, with the current main structure dating to the 10th century AD. Between 1219 and 1220, the city of Khujand was besieged by Genghis Khan's Mongol army, which severely damaged the fortress. It was rebuilt again in the 15th century.

In 1999, a section of the eastern wall, which dated back to the 8th or 10th century, underwent a historically inaccurate restoration and was converted into the Sughd Museum and the Museum of Archaeology and Fortification. I was very disappointed that I couldn't visit the museum because it was already closed when I arrived in Khujand.









From May 17 to 24, 1866, Russia captured the Khujand Fortress. Mikhail Afrikanovich Terentʹev, a Russian officer, orientalist, linguist, and writer who was present, took photos of the fortress that were later included in the Turkestan Album.



This image is a battle map used during the Russian siege of Khujand in May 1866. The map shows the central Khujand Fortress and the outer city walls.



Khujand Fortress.



Looking at the market from the city walls.

4. Traditional Tajik hats

The east side of the Khujand Fortress has been turned into a small park. At a shop near the wall, I bought a few hats worn by people from the Badakhshan region of Tajikistan and the Kulob area on the edge of the Pamirs. The style of these hats is clearly different from the skullcaps (dopa) worn by lowland Tajiks; they have wool trim on the edges and decorative borders.













Below is a hat worn by the Pamiri people of Tajikistan that I found online; you can see it also has pom-poms on the side.







5. The Syr Darya River

Not far to the north of the Khujand Fortress is the Syr Darya River. The Syr Darya originates in the Tianshan Mountains, flows west into the Fergana Valley, and exits the valley after passing through Khujand.





The Syr Darya River near Khujand, photographed for the Turkestan Album, which was edited by Russian orientalist Aleksandr L. Kun between 1865 and 1872.







Sculptures by the river.

6. Thursday Bazaar

Then I caught a ride with an older man to the Panjshanbe Bazaar. Even though we didn't speak the same language, we chatted the whole way. Using hand gestures, I understood that the Panjshanbe Bazaar has two main entrances, which one is closest to the main road, and the best way to walk through it.



The Panjshanbe Bazaar is actually open every day, but it is busiest on Thursdays. It is known as the largest bazaar in the Fergana Valley. The main hall was built in 1964 and is one of the most important Soviet buildings in Khujand.

















People of Khujand in the 1860s and 1870s, from the Turkestan Album.







7. Saint's tomb

Sheikh Muslihiddin (1133–1223) was a poet and ruler of Khujand. His tomb was originally outside the suburbs of Khujand, but later those who revered him moved it to its current location. The original tomb was quite small and was later destroyed by the Mongols. People rebuilt the tomb after the 14th century, rebuilt it again into its current form in the 16th century, and built the current minaret in 1865. During the Soviet era, this place served as a regional history museum, and it only returned to its religious function after the museum moved out in the 1990s.









The tomb mosque in the 1860s-70s from the Turkestan Album.



A 19th-century minaret.





8. Dinner

It was almost dark after I finished walking around the Thursday Bazaar, so I strolled toward my accommodation while looking for a restaurant. As I walked, I suddenly smelled grilled meat. A young man at the door called out to me, so I went into this barbecue restaurant. Besides the grilled meat, the restaurant had various self-service options. I ordered horse sausage (machangzi), beef wrapped with potatoes, flatbread (nang), and rice soup (mastava). The meat skewers they served were really huge, and I couldn't finish them in the end. The young waiters inside were all very kind, always smiling and asking how my meal was. One of the young men spoke fluent English, and I had a great time chatting with him.





Grilled meat (kaorou).



Horse sausage (machangzi).





Rice soup (mitang).



Flatbread (nang).







The barbecue uncle.



The barbecue uncle.

9. The uncle playing the accordion

After dinner, I strolled back to my hotel and met an uncle playing the accordion in the courtyard of a restaurant next to the hotel. The uncle's job was to go from one private room to another in the restaurant to sing for the guests. When there were no new guests, the uncle sang a few songs for me too. The uncle could sing all kinds of Uzbek, Tajik, and Soviet songs, and you could see the marks left by the Soviet era on him.



10. Khujand night view

I walked around the streets of Khujand at night. Since it was the last night of this trip, I was a bit reluctant to leave, so I took more night photos to share with everyone.



Shops on the Thursday Bazaar square.



World War II Memorial.















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Reposted from the web

Summary: Tajikistan — Sogdian Old City, Muslim Heritage and History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: On the morning of February 13, 2019, I left Samarkand for Panjakent, Tajikistan. The border crossing east of Samarkand leading to Tajikistan had been closed for many years and only reopened in 2018. The account keeps its focus on Tajikistan Travel, Sogdian History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

On the morning of February 13, 2019, I left Samarkand for Panjakent, Tajikistan. The border crossing east of Samarkand leading to Tajikistan had been closed for many years and only reopened in 2018. After the border opened, the trip from Samarkand to Panjakent took just over an hour, which is the main reason I added Panjakent to my Uzbekistan trip.

Because I was worried about language barriers, I booked a day tour online with ADVANTOUR. ADVANTOUR is a reliable travel agency specializing in Central Asia and the Caucasus, and it is recommended in the Lonely Planet Central Asia guidebook. Besides custom tours, ADVANTOUR can also handle hotel, transport, and visa bookings. After I placed my order on their website, I communicated with the manager, Kodirov Anvar, via email to confirm the details. He was patient and polite, and we had a very pleasant exchange.

Table of Contents

1. Samarkand Border Crossing

2. Ancient City of Sarazm

3. Lunch

4. Accommodation

5. Rudaki Museum

6. Buying a Hat

7. Grand Bazaar

8. Olim Dodho Madrasa

9. Capital of Sogdiana: Ancient City of Panjakent

10. Mausoleum of Rudaki

11. Tajik Families Deep in the Mountains

1. Samarkand Border Crossing

Early on the 13th, an Uzbek driver arranged by ADVANTOUR picked me up from my hotel to head to the border, and we arrived in less than an hour. After security checks, exit stamps, entry stamps, and another security check, I arrived in Tajikistan. Two reminders for crossing the border: keep the registration slips from your hotels in Uzbekistan, as they will check them when you leave. Also, if you buy any antiques, you must get the relevant certificates, which can usually be issued at the place where you buy the items.



After entering, my Tajik guide, Afridun, waved at me with a sign showing my name, and my Tajikistan trip officially began. Afridun told me this border had been closed for many years, and some young people did not even know that hundreds of thousands of Tajiks lived in Samarkand and Bukhara across the border. The border finally opened during Nowruz last spring, and Panjakent held a grand ceremony, with many people traveling to Samarkand to see it. A friend of the guide was waiting to pay at a supermarket in Samarkand when he heard the person in front of him speaking Tajik to the cashier, and that was how he realized so many Tajiks lived in Samarkand.

2. Ancient City of Sarazm

Not far east from the border, after passing an Uzbek village, I arrived at Tajikistan's only UNESCO World Heritage site, the ancient city of Sarazm. This ancient city is one of the earliest in Central Asia and was the largest metallurgical center in the region during the Bronze Age.







According to carbon-14 dating, the city dates from roughly 3500 BC to 2000 BC, spanning from the Chalcolithic period to the early and middle Bronze Age. The city is located 45 kilometers east of Samarkand and 15 kilometers west of Panjakent in the Zeravshan River valley, at an average altitude of 910 meters. Geographically, the city sits right between the agricultural plains of Transoxiana and the pastoral areas of the Pamir-Alay mountains, making it a perfect spot for mountain herders and plain farmers to trade goods and share skills and culture.

Additionally, the Zeravshan valley is rich in metal resources, with tin and gold found in the river sand being the most important. The area gradually became a metal smelting center, and industries like pottery and stone processing also began to emerge.

By around 3000 BC, the ancient city of Sarazm became a long-distance trade hub focused on tin exports. Its trade network reached north to the Aral Sea and the Eurasian Steppe, west to Turkmenistan, the Iranian plateau, and Mesopotamia, and south to Balochistan and the Indus Valley.



Trade map of the ancient city, from UNESCO documents.

In 1976, a villager named Mr. Achurali Taïkonov accidentally found a bronze axe while farming. He handed it to Professor A. Isakov, an archaeologist, who then began working with the villagers to excavate the site. Archaeological work officially started in 1977, and the ancient city of Sarazm, which had been missing for over 3,000 years, appeared once again.

Between 1977 and 1994, a period of 17 years, Professor A. Isakov led 11 excavations and 20 surveys. From 1984 to 1991, a French archaeological team (CNRS) also conducted archaeological work here.



On the right is the site's discoverer, Achurali Taïkonov, and on the left is the head of archaeology, Professor A. Isakov. The image is from a UNESCO document.



Professor A. Isakov at the archaeological site. The photo is from a UNESCO document.

Looking at the terrain, the ancient city of Sarazm had no clear urban planning; it extended naturally in different directions without city walls. The total area of the ancient city exceeds 50 hectares, consisting of 10 hills of varying heights and 5 depressions, which correspond to the city's building areas and ponds. The building area consisted of houses, temples, and workshops. Palaces also appeared between 2900 BC and 2700 BC, and it is estimated that the population exceeded 3,000 at its peak.

Early buildings in the ancient city used rectangular clay bricks mixed with straw. Later, they also began using river stones, but these were mainly used for building wall foundations. The roofs were flat with wooden beams, covered by one or several layers of branches and reeds.

Residential courtyards included storage rooms, workshops, kitchens, and living areas. Most had fenced yards where most handicraft work took place.

After 3300 BC, family altars for sacrificial activities appeared inside the rooms, with a circular furnace altar in the center. Starting in 2900 BC, the altars became larger, and square fireplaces with circular altars began to appear, inside which charred seeds were found.

Workshops focused mainly on metal smelting. Furnaces, clay molds, crucibles, and many metal products were found at the site. Next was pottery making. Early pieces were handmade, but after 2700 BC, a potter's wheel (taojun) appeared. there were workshops for processing various gemstones such as turquoise, lapis lazuli, ruby, and agate.









The most important discovery in the ancient city was a tomb called the 'Lady of Sarazm,' which contained a woman's skeleton surrounded by thousands of beads and various jewelry, and even shells from the Indian Ocean or the Arabian Sea. The most important burial item for the Lady of Sarazm was her bracelet, which clearly came from the Indus civilization.

Another important artifact is a cylindrical seal discovered in 1984, which can print a bull when rolled. This bull has distinct Mesopotamian characteristics.



The location where the Lady of Sarazm and the bull seal were unearthed, from a UNESCO document.



The bull seal, from a UNESCO document.



Beads unearthed from the tomb of the Lady of Sarazm, displayed in the Rudaki Museum.

3. Lunch

After visiting the ancient city of Sarazm, we continued east to the Penjikent urban area and ate pilaf (zhuafan), baked meat buns (kaobaozi), and flatbread (nang) at a local restaurant.

Plain Tajiks and Uzbeks have lived together for hundreds of years and have influenced each other deeply; it is hard to tell them apart from their diet to their clothing. While eating, a waiter was a Pamiri who came here to work during winter break, so I followed the topic and chatted with them about the differences between plain Tajiks and Pamiris. The Tajik language spoken by plain Tajiks belongs to the Western Iranian branch, like Persian and Kurdish. The language spoken by Pamiris belongs to the Eastern Iranian branch, like Pashto and Sogdian. The two cannot communicate. Pamiris in Tajikistan learn Tajik as a second language in school from a young age. the obvious difference between plain Tajiks and Pamiris is that the former are Sunni and the latter are Shia; the former wear a skullcap (duopa), and the latter wear a flat-topped hat.





Pilaf (zhuafan)



Cold dish



Baked meat buns (kaobaozi)



On the left is the young guide, and on the right is the driver.



4. Accommodation

After lunch, I went to the hotel to drop off my luggage. I booked the Umariyon Hotel myself on Booking. It is a pretty good hotel in Penjikent with a good location.



5. Rudaki Museum

The Rudaki Museum is the main museum in Penjikent. It is similar to a county museum in China, with few but comprehensive collections.





The guide is explaining things to me.

Traditional jewelry collected in the Rudaki Museum.













6. Buying a Hat

An auntie sells tourist souvenirs right inside the entrance of the Rudaki Museum hall, which is quite rare. I bought a skullcap (doppa) and a coaster. The auntie sewed the coaster herself, and the doppa is from the late Soviet era.

This dark green velvet almond skullcap (Badam Doppa) is quite rare, as most are black nowadays. The almond skullcap is known as "Chust do‘ppisi" in Uzbekistan. Chust is a handicraft center in the Fergana Valley famous for producing skullcaps. The almond skullcap likely originated in the 19th century. It spread rapidly among Uzbeks, lowland Tajiks, and Uyghurs from the late 19th to the early 20th century. It later became the most common type of skullcap for adult Uzbek and lowland Tajik men, and it also accounts for a significant proportion among adult Uyghur men.











7. Grand Bazaar

After leaving the museum, we went to the Grand Bazaar in Panjakent.











I bought traditional lowland Tajik music discs at two shops. I asked the grandmother at the shop to play them, and they sounded quite similar to Uzbek music.







Our guide is buying flatbread (nan).



8. Olim Dodho Madrasa

The Olim Dodho Madrasa is across from the bazaar. It dates back to the 14th century, was rebuilt twice in the 17th century and in 1826, and was renovated in 1958 and 1982. It is currently closed to the public and is the most important Islamic monument in the city of Panjakent.







9. Capital of Sogdiana: Ancient City of Panjakent

Next, we arrived at the ancient city of Panjakent on the outskirts of town.



The entrance to the ancient city, which is the site of the southeast corner tower.



A restoration drawing of the southeast corner.



We climbed down from the corner tower site and officially entered the ancient city.



Entering the main road of the inner city.



The ancient city of Panjakent was the capital of the Kingdom of Mymoghe, one of the Nine Sogdian Kingdoms. In the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, Mymoghe is recorded as "Mimoguo," and its capital was called Poshide City. In 1946, Soviet scholars began archaeological excavations of the ancient city of Panjakent. They initially determined that the city was founded in the 5th century AD and flourished during the 7th and 8th centuries.

The ancient city of Panjakent was a trading city on the Silk Road. Its citizens were mainly merchants who managed trade from inland China all the way to the coast of the Caspian Sea. According to the Hudud 'Alam, there were thousands of caravanserais in the ancient city of Panjakent, and merchants from nearby countries would come here to trade. Therefore, the large number of copper coins unearthed in the ancient city of Panjakent include not only local currency but also coins from the nearby Kang Kingdom (Samarkand), An Kingdom (Bukhara), and Shi Kingdom (Tashkent).

Starting in the 7th century, the Arabs began to invade Sogdiana. In 674, the Arab army first looted the ancient city of Panjakent. In 706, the famous Arab general Qutaybah surrounded the ancient city of Panjakent again. Upon hearing the news, the various countries of the Nine Sogdian Kingdoms sent troops to surround the Arab army for two months. The Arab army, fighting with their backs to the river, eventually defeated the Sogdian reinforcements and continued to besiege the ancient city of Panjakent for 50 days. According to the History of Bukhara, to boost morale, Qutaybah announced that whoever broke through the gap would be rewarded, and if they died in battle, the reward would go to their children. Eventually, the Arab army broke into the ancient city of Panjakent. Qutaybah set the amount of tribute and then continued on to attack other Sogdian cities.

After Qutaybah left, the Sogdian nobleman Divashtich became the last ruler of Panjakent. Initially, Divashtich submitted to Arab rule and even sent his own children to the Arabs as hostages. But in 720, Divashtich joined several Sogdian lords to launch a war against the Arabs. In 722, Divashtich was defeated and captured, and the Arab army burned the houses and Zoroastrian temples of Panjakent. The Arabs then beheaded Divashtich, nailed his body to a Zoroastrian tomb building in Panjakent, and took his head back to Iraq.

After Divashtich died, the ancient city of Panjakent was gradually abandoned at the end of the 8th century and disappeared into history.



The north wall of the inner city; below the cliff is the new city of Panjakent from the post-Islamic era.







The ancient city of Panjakent was divided into three parts: the citadel, the inner city, and the outer city, all surrounded by city walls. The citadel was in the far west, with palaces and walls, and was where the rulers lived. The inner city is on the east side with a complex network of streets. Main roads are 3 to 5 meters wide, lined with houses, workshops, and shops.



Homes of the wealthy usually have two floors, with a storage room and a spiral staircase leading to the second floor on the ground level. The second floor features a grand hall with murals, where four wooden pillars support intricate wood carvings.







Murals are among the most important artifacts in the ancient city of Panjakent. They have been found in over 50 room ruins, and some are very well preserved. The main wall of the hall features murals of various guardian deities. The other three walls show scenes of festivals, hunting, Sassanid heroic epics, and folklore. There are even themes from the Persian epic Shahnameh and images of the Indian god Shiva. Most of these murals are now kept in the Dushanbe Museum of Antiquities and the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg. A small number are also in the Panjakent Ancient City Museum and the Rudaki Museum.











Wood carvings are also very important artifacts from the ancient city. Wooden structures are hard to preserve for long in the damp environment of Panjakent. However, archaeologists were surprised to find charred wood carvings in houses that were covered by collapsed roofs after fires.

Some of these wood carvings are in the Panjakent Ancient City Museum.













There are two Zoroastrian (fire-worshipping) temples on the north side of the city, which were once the most important buildings in the inner city. Although Buddhism and Manichaeism were widespread in the Sogdian region, most people in Panjakent followed Zoroastrianism. The Zoroastrianism practiced by the people of Panjakent is called Sogdian Zoroastrianism, which is a unique sect. This sect was influenced by many other religions, even those from ancient Mesopotamia, including the goddess Nanaya worshipped by the Sumerians.











Pottery shards unearthed in the temples bear the names of donors in the Sogdian language and are now kept in the Rudaki Museum in Panjakent.



Sogdian wooden slips unearthed from the ancient city are now kept in the Rudaki Museum in Panjakent.

A wine vat site was found in the ruins of the ancient city of Panjakent. It could store over 1,400 liters of grape juice, showing that winemaking was well-developed at the time. According to the Jin Dynasty book Bowuzhi, there was wine in the Western Regions that would not spoil for many years. "

ruins of iron workshops and glass workshops can be seen in the ancient city of Panjakent. The Sogdians were skilled at making ironware, pottery, and gold and silver items, and were especially famous for their armor. In 718 AD, the Sogdians presented chainmail as a gift to Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty.





The cemetery is located south of the city and covers 10 hectares. Over 50 tombs have been found, including single and double burials. They contain pottery ossuaries with typical Zoroastrian ash urns and fire altars.



Currently kept in the Panjakent Ancient City Museum.



Currently kept in the Panjakent Ancient City Museum.

Nestorianism was another important religion followed by the Sogdians of Panjakent besides Zoroastrianism. The image below shows a Nestorian tombstone carved with a cross.



Currently kept in the Panjakent Ancient City Museum.



Outside the east city wall is the suburban area.

The Soviet Union began archaeological excavations in Panjakent in 1946. In 1954, 21-year-old Moscow State University archaeology student Boris Marshak came to the ancient city of Panjakent to participate in excavations. He worked there for over fifty years until he passed away.

Marshak began leading the archaeological work at the ancient city of Panjakent in 1978 and became the head of the Central Asia and Caucasus department at the Hermitage in Leningrad in 1979.

After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, a five-year civil war broke out in Tajikistan. Many ethnic Russians left the country, but Marshak continued to serve as the director of the site excavations. At that time, the archaeological work faced not only a lack of funding but also the danger of looting. Through close cooperation with the Tajik government, Marshak ensured the safety of the site. By connecting with international organizations and traveling to countries like Italy, the United States, and Austria to teach and give lectures, Marshak also secured enough funding.

On July 28, 2006, Marshak passed away at the work site in the ancient city. According to his will, he was buried at the entrance to the ancient city.













Panjakent Ancient City Museum.

10. Mausoleum of Rudaki

After visiting the ancient city, I went to visit the hometown of my guide, Afridun. The guide's home is deep in the Fann Mountains, 60 kilometers east of Panjakent. The Fann Mountains are praised in the Lonely Planet Central Asia guide as one of the best hiking spots in Central Asia, but there are almost no tourists in winter.

On the way to the guide's home, I passed the Mausoleum of Rudaki, but unfortunately, it was already closed. Rudaki is known as the father of modern Persian literature, the founder of classical Persian literature, and is even called the Adam of Poets. Rudaki was born in present-day Tajikistan in 858 AD. He spent most of his life as a court poet for the Samanid Empire in Bukhara, but he fell out of favor in his later years and died in poverty near his hometown in 941.

In the early 20th century, Sadriddin Ayni, known as the father of modern Tajik literature, studied various historical manuscripts to determine the approximate location of Rudaki's tomb. He worked with Russian anthropologist Professor Mikhail Gerasimov and several Tajik scholars to finally locate the tomb. A new tomb for Rudaki was built in 1958.







11. Tajik Families Deep in the Mountains

After passing Rudaki's tomb, the road turned into a dirt path in the valley that became increasingly difficult to travel.





We finally arrived at our guide's home just as it started to snow heavily.



The guide's wife made us meatball soup (wanzi tang) and yogurt made from their own fresh milk, both of which were delicious. The snow outside kept getting heavier, but we had a great time sitting by the fire, watching TV, and chatting with the children.







The guide's youngest daughter, Fatima, is only 10 months old, while his older daughter, Oisha, and son, Samir, were watching Kung Fu Panda and Ice Age on TV.









The snow fell harder on our way back, but we made it safely to the city, successfully completing our one-day trip to Panjakent.



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Reposted from the web

Summary: Tonghai, Yunnan — Ma Family Courtyard and Hui Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Author: Zainab. The account keeps its focus on Yunnan Travel, Hui Muslims, Ma Family Courtyard while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Author: Zainab

On October 4, we drove 33 kilometers east from Dabaiyi Village in Eshan, Yuxi, Yunnan, to reach Dahui Village in Tonghai County.

Dahui Village was originally called Hexi Dadonggou. It is home to over a thousand Hui Muslims, the most famous of whom are the Ma family of Tonghai. The Ma family’s ancestral home was Nanjing. They came to Tonghai to do business with the army in the early Ming Dynasty and settled there. In the early 20th century, the Ma family built up great wealth through horse caravans and international trade. They built three large courtyards in the village between the 1930s and 1940s, which were named Yunnan Provincial Cultural Relics Protection Units in 2018.

The Ma family courtyards were confiscated after the 1950s. In 1986, they were returned to the Ma family as private property belonging to overseas Chinese, and the family has lived there ever since. As the elders of the Ma family passed away and the younger generations moved to cities, the family handed over Courtyard No. 1 and Courtyard No. 2 to the village for safekeeping. They only return during holidays, while Courtyard No. 3 is still occupied by Ma family descendants. By asking helpful village elders, we were able to visit Courtyard No. 1 and Courtyard No. 2. We were very sorry we could not enter Courtyard No. 3 because the owners were not home.

Courtyard No. 1

The first large courtyard is No. 102 in Dahui Village. Built between 1932 and 1933, it is a traditional Yunnan-style courtyard with a layout known as 'three bright and five dark' (ming san an wu) and a corner-turning corridor (zouma zhuanjiaolou). This means you have to walk a distance from the main gate before reaching the courtyard itself.

The outermost part is a traditional Yunnan-style gate with a ridged roof and upturned eaves. It is very interesting to see two sets of couplets from different eras layered on top of each other. The bottom layer is a traditional couplet: 'Han dynasty tile inscriptions bring long life, Zhou dynasty bronze plate inscriptions bring wealth and luck.' The yellow upper layer has a first line that reads, 'Study hard, Allah is the master, put effort into your writing.' I cannot fully identify the second line, only the words 'hardened' and 'hatred'.





After entering the gate, there is a small courtyard filled with orange trees heavy with fruit.







Entering the courtyard, there is a Western-style gate from the Republic of China era. Its Roman columns look very similar to the minaret (jiaobailou) of the Dabaiyi Mosque in Eshan, built in 1935. You can also see the slogan 'Be united, tense, serious, and lively' on the gate, as this place once served as the Dahui Village committee office.





The hollowed-out partition wall inside the gate is very different from the traditional screen wall (zhaobi) or folding screen found in other courtyards.



The first small section of the courtyard contains a small house built of cement. This cement was imported from Japan at the time and transported via Kunming.



The front hall of the Ma family courtyard is unique, featuring a six-sided, multi-eaved, pointed-roof pavilion. It was used exclusively by the clan leader, Ma Yuanwu, for namaz, so it is also called the prayer pavilion (libaiting). It later became the village broadcast station. The pavilion has exquisite colorful paintings, wood carvings, and tiles imported from Japan.

Ma Yuanwu (1862-1955) originally made his living as a farmer. In the early 20th century, he sent his eldest son, Ma Tongzhu (1880-1958), to lead a horse caravan. At first, they carried salt to Xinping County to sell to people from Sichuan. After three or four trips, they saved some money, and then he sent his eldest grandson, Ma Bingzhong (1899-1972), to open a soy sauce workshop in Panxi Town, nearby Huaining County. At the same time, the Ma family used their horse caravans to transport brown sugar boiled in Panxi to Kunming for sale, then brought salt back to Panxi, gradually growing their business.



















At the entrance to the first floor of the prayer pavilion, there is a couplet: 'Orchids and cassia in the pavilion spread fragrance far, the shade of the ailanthus and birch trees in the hall lasts long.' The ceiling inside features clouds, cranes, and the characters for 'blessing' (fu) and 'longevity' (shou). The second-floor ceiling has two lotus flowers, and the surrounding windows feature very fine wood carvings.





















You can see the pastoral scenery from the balconies on both sides of the prayer pavilion.



The Ma family courtyard was built under the direction of Ma Tongkuan, the second son of clan leader Ma Yuanwu. During the early Republic of China, Ma Tongkuan lived in Mojiang County, east of Pu'er, managing various business dealings. Because he kept his word and managed things well, he became a very wealthy man in southern Yunnan. In the middle and late Republic of China, Ma Tongkuan returned to his hometown of Dahui Village and oversaw the construction of the three Ma family courtyards. In 1956, Ma Tongkuan served as deputy county magistrate of Qilu County. In 1957, he was labeled a rightist, and in 1968, he returned to Allah (gui zhen).

When building the Ma family courtyards, Ma Tongkuan hired craftsmen from Shanghai and Annam. It took about twenty years. They fired their own bricks and tiles, quarried stone, and selected and cut their own timber. The garden kept peacocks and even had an advanced boiler room.























Tonghai has always been famous for its wood carving craftsmanship, and the exquisite wood-carved doors and windows of Courtyard No. 1 are proof of this. The doors and windows feature not only various flowers, plants, birds, and animals, but also pavilions, waterside structures, and Western-style architecture, showing the unique style of the era.

The Ma family courtyard once had twenty or thirty plaques, including 'Cultivating Virtue to Protect Descendants' inscribed by Chiang Kai-shek and 'Five Generations of Prosperity' inscribed by Long Yun, as well as plaques from Yu Youren, Bai Chongxi, Feng Yuxiang, and many others. However, they were all destroyed in the 1960s. All the beautiful couplets were replaced by slogans. Figure 1 shows the marks where the plaques used to hang above the door.

In 1918, the Ma family sold their soy sauce workshop and opened the Yuanxinzhai firm in Mojiang. They switched to trading cotton yarn, cloth, silk, and satin. At the same time, they bought mountain goods and medicinal materials like tea, purple stick (shellac), cowhide, deerskin, velvet antler, and ivory. Later, they also boiled deer glue, expanding their reach from domestic markets to Thailand and Myanmar.

In 1921, the Ma family changed the name of 'Yuanxinzhai' to 'Yuanxinchang' in Kunming. They mainly traded ivory, velvet antler, tiger bone, otter skin, tea, cloth, silk, and dyes. They also transported Chinese medicinal herbs like saffron, sweet flag (changpu), musk, and fritillaria to Thailand for sale. Later, the Ma family established the Jingchang Tea House in Jiangcheng and founded a tea factory to press seven-piece tea cakes (qizi bingcha), which were carried by horse to Laos and then to Vietnam and Hong Kong for sale.



















An empty room.







A small house in the backyard, which also has its own little courtyard.







The water vat in the courtyard was likely used for fighting fires.



A safe from the Republic of China era sits in the courtyard. It is labeled 'Southwest Industrial Company Safe Department' and 'Improved fire and Thief Resisting safe Made in China'. "

In 1951, the Ma family deposited all the gold, silver, and silver dollars (yuan datou) buried under their compound into the Hexi County People's Bank. This included about 2,000 taels of gold bricks and bars. The largest gold brick weighed over 400 taels, making it too heavy for one person to carry easily, along with 2,000 to 3,000 silver dollars. This event was reported in the Yunnan Daily, and the Ma family was called 'enlightened landlords'. After the land reform movement (tu gai), this gold and silver was taken back to Dahui Village to be displayed as 'fruits of struggle' during public meetings, and then the three compounds and all the furniture were confiscated.







Courtyard No. 2.

Courtyard No. 2 of the Tonghai Ma Family Compound is located at No. 57 Dahui Village. Built in 1937, it is also a 'key-shaped' (ke yi yin) courtyard with corner towers, but it has a larger skylight, a spacious yard, and simpler decorations.

A plaque reading 'Five Generations Under One Roof' once hung over the gate of Courtyard No. 2. Today, you can still faintly see the words 'Dongqu Brigade' and 'School'. After it was returned to the Ma family in 1986, it was lived in by the family of Ma Zishang (1914-2007), the grandson of Ma Yuanwu. In recent years, the Ma descendants only return during holidays.

In the 1930s, besides running horse caravans for trade, the Ma family set up branches across central and southern Yunnan, as well as in Kengtung and Monghsat in Myanmar, and Lampang, Chiang Mai, and Bangkok in Thailand. During the War of Resistance, trade routes were cut off, and Pu'er tea began to pile up. Once the war ended and the routes reopened, the Ma family immediately hired ten large ten-wheeled trucks to transport over 40 tons of Pu'er tea to Guangdong for resale in Hong Kong. Because the Pu'er tea had been stored for years, it was fully fermented and aged, making it very fragrant and popular with buyers. On the return trip, they brought back flashlights and batteries, which were scarce in Yunnan and sold out quickly.



























The Ma family was not only good at business but also very devout. I saw several plaques in the courtyard celebrating their successful Hajj pilgrimages.



Courtyard No. 3.

Courtyard No. 3 of the Tonghai Ma Family Compound is at No. 101 Dahui Village. Built between 1947 and 1948, it is the most modern of the three. The Ma family had not yet moved in when the liberation occurred, and after land reform, it became a warehouse for the production team. It is still occupied by Ma family descendants. We were disappointed that we could not visit because the owners were away when we arrived.

After 1945, cross-border trade from Simao to Thailand and Myanmar was gradually replaced by inland trade from Shanghai and Guangzhou to Yunnan. After careful consideration, the Ma family closed their trading businesses in Simao, Mojiang, and Jiangcheng after 1948. The Ma family planned to start trade between Yunnan and Chengdu, Chongqing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, but new conflicts made this impossible. They finally decided to work together to open the Mingde Cotton Yarn Shop in Kunming. In 1950, the Ma family invested in the Mingde Textile Mill, starting with an investment of 2,000 bales of cotton yarn. After the public-private partnership reform in 1956, Ma Ziming continued to serve as the manager of the Mingde Textile Mill.







Dahui Village Mosque.

The Dahui Village Mosque in Tonghai was first built in the Ming Dynasty and rebuilt in 1829. The Tonghai Ma family led an expansion in 1946, and the main prayer hall was recently rebuilt as a modern structure.

Tonghai Dahui Village is a Jahriyya (a Sufi order) village. In 1781, Ma Shunqing (1770-1851), the eldest son of the Jahriyya founder Ma Mingxin, was exiled by the Qing government to Simao, Yunnan. He was later rescued by the imam Ma Yunguang from Gucheng and settled in Talang Village, Mojiang, where he became known as the 'Old Ancestor of Talang'. The third son of the Old Ancestor of Talang, Ma Shilin (1813-1871), moved from Talang to Dahui Village in Tonghai and became known as the 'Third Elder of Yunnan'. Ma Shilin ran a horse caravan business in Kunming and became a famous wealthy man, making Dahui Village in Tonghai a well-known Jahriyya village in Yunnan.













The 'Private Yuanwu Chinese-Arabic Primary School' next to the mosque was founded in 1947 by Ma Tongkuan, the second son of the Tonghai Ma family patriarch, Ma Yuanwu. At the time, the school had six classes and an attached kindergarten, with over 300 students from various villages in the northern plains of Hexi County. to the standard curriculum of public schools, they also added English and Arabic. The first class graduated in 1950. Among them, Ma Qichao became the deputy county magistrate of Tonghai, and Xiao Hanjie became the principal of the Tonghai County Teacher Training School.





Some old houses in Dahui Village.













The most detailed book about the Tonghai Ma family is the oral history 'Legendary Family on the Tea Horse Road', and some of the information in this article was compiled from that book. Collapse Read »

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Summary: What Does Allahu Akbar Mean? A Simple Muslim Explanation is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia around the world, the phrase "Allahu Akbar" is tossed around by political commentators, media outlets, and so-called security experts as a term that signals violence and. The account keeps its focus on Allahu Akbar, Muslim Faith, Islamic Terms while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.



Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia around the world, the phrase "Allahu Akbar" is tossed around by political commentators, media outlets, and so-called security experts as a term that signals violence and terrorism.

But what does this phrase actually mean? And what does it mean to the nearly 2 billion Muslims around the world? Collapse Read »

Reposted from the web

Summary: What Does Allahu Akbar Mean? Meaning, Dua and Muslim Faith is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia in different parts of the world, political commentators, the media, and so-called security experts repeatedly use "Allahu Akbar" as a sign of violence and terrorism. The account keeps its focus on Allahu Akbar, Muslim Faith, Islamic Terms while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.



Also, as we face a rising wave of Islamophobia in different parts of the world, political commentators, the media, and so-called security experts repeatedly use "Allahu Akbar" as a sign of violence and terrorism. But what does "Allahu Akbar" actually mean? What does it mean to the nearly two billion Muslims around the world?

From the moment of birth, when "Allahu Akbar" is whispered gently into a newborn's ear, to the lullabies that soothe them to sleep—Subhanallah, Walhamdulillah, Wala Ilaha Illallah, Wallahu Akbar—praise for Allah becomes the melody of our existence.

These are the words that connect us to Allah, who is infinite and beyond all imagination.

Allah is supreme, the maker of all things, the master of the universe, the exalted, the one, and the only.

He is beyond what any words can express and beyond everything that exists.

We recite "Allahu Akbar" more than a hundred times a day during the different parts of our namaz. We whisper it when we stretch in the morning or when we step out of our homes to start a new day. We often start a task with this phrase; it is a holy reset button. Sometimes we say it with joy and happiness because Allah is the greatest, and He gives us these precious, happy moments. Sometimes we say it in deep sadness to remind ourselves that Allah is greater than any difficulty we might face. But what is the essence of this phrase?

Allah is the greatest.

Allah is the greatest.

Let us break down the deep meaning of these two words.

If we translate it word for word, it means: Allah—He is—the greatest.

But to fully understand "Allahu Akbar," we must look deeper into the Arabic language.

The word Akbar comes from the three-letter root k-b-r (ك ب ر), which means great. These root letters also appear in words that describe nobility, grandeur, and power. The beauty of this root is its versatility, capturing the essence of everything grand and beyond human understanding.

In its grammatical form, Akbar is an ism tafdīl, a term in Arabic grammar that shows a comparative (greater) or superlative (greatest) meaning. Usually, when we say "Allahu Akbar," we are using the comparative form, which leaves the phrase beautifully open: "Allah is greater..."

Greater than what, you might ask? Greater than everything. Greater than our happiness and greater than our worldly pleasures. When we say this phrase in moments of frustration, stress, or disappointment, we are reminding ourselves that Allah is greater than any test we face. This is a deep connection between the heart and the infinite greatness of our Creator.

When the call to dua, the adhan, begins with "Allahu Akbar," it shows that this call is more important than anything we are currently doing.

It calls us to stop, refocus, and answer the divine invitation.

When we approach dua and raise our hands to start with "Allahu Akbar," we declare that this dua—this moment of connection with Allah—is now our center.

Allah is greater than everything we have left behind.

The Messenger of Allah ﷺ summarized this beautifully when he said: "Saying: Glory be to Allah (Subhan-Allah), all praise is due to Allah (Al-hamdu lillah), there is no god but Allah (La ilaha illallah), and Allah is the greatest (Allahu Akbar) is more beloved to me than everything the sun has ever shone upon." [Sahih Muslim 1409]

A world full of hope and meaning is contained in this simple yet profound phrase.

It constantly reminds us that no matter where we are in life—whether standing at the peak of joy or deep in the pit of despair—Allah is greater.

Allah's greatness encompasses everything, and in this greatness, we find our anchor, our hope, and our comfort. Collapse Read »

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Summary: Beijing — Mosques, Islamic New Year and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: July 30, 2022, was the Islamic New Year. Since it fell on a Saturday, I decided to go on a mosque-visiting trip. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Mosques, Islamic New Year, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

July 30, 2022, was the Islamic New Year. Since it fell on a Saturday, I decided to go on a mosque-visiting trip.

Dongzhimenwai Mosque

A great day starts with a good morning (bangda). I went to the Dongzhimenwai Mosque, which is relatively close to my home. Dongzhimenwai Mosque was originally called Erlizhuang Mosque. It was first built during the Yuan Dynasty and renovated during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty. In the late 1980s, Shougang Group and a Danish business partner built international apartments in Erlizhuang. Because of this, the mosque was moved one kilometer to the northwest and rebuilt. It was completed in 1991 and reopened in 1993.

The mosque currently houses a precious wooden carving of a dua, which is said to be an original piece from the Yuan Dynasty.













After finishing my namaz, I visited the morning market (xiaoshier) by the Liangma River outside Dongzhimen. I went there often last summer, but this was my first time this year. It felt like the items weren't as interesting as before.









After the market, I grabbed a quick breakfast at Bai Kui in Kuanjie, then went home to take a nap.



Knife-cut noodles (daoxiaomian) in Xiguanshi

I woke up in the morning and set off for the Qinghe Mosque, but the information was wrong and it was closed. I continued on to Xiguanshi in Changping.

I had knife-cut noodles (daoxiaomian) at Yiyuan Restaurant in Xiguanshi. They also serve corn noodles (yumigeluomian) and oat noodles (bashanyouman). Because the Hui Muslims of Xiguanshi were used to traveling the western routes as armed escorts during the Qing Dynasty, their dietary habits were influenced by the Jin dialect region. This makes them very different from Hui Muslims in other parts of Beijing. Eating a bowl of these Hui Muslim knife-cut noodles is a way to get a taste of the Qing Dynasty culture of traveling the western routes (zouxikou).









Street view of Xiguanshi



This meat flatbread (roushaobing) shop is also very famous.







Xiguanshi Mosque

After lunch, I performed my namaz at the Xiguanshi Mosque.

Xiguanshi Mosque was originally called the Guan Shi Village Mosque. It was first built in 1494 (the seventh year of the Hongzhi reign of the Ming Dynasty). The main hall was rebuilt in 1709 (the 48th year of Kangxi), the main gate in 1723 (the first year of Yongzheng), the hall rooms in 1732 (the tenth year of Yongzheng), and the kiln hall in 1761 (the 26th year of Qianlong). It continued to be renovated during the Guangxu period and the Republic of China.

On August 15, 1900, the Eight-Nation Alliance entered Beijing. Empress Dowager Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor fled the city to the west, arriving in Xiguanshi at dusk. The Hui Muslims of Xiguanshi, led by clan elder Li Xilun, welcomed the imperial party south of the village. They led Cixi and her group to stay at the Xiguanshi Mosque, where they were received by Imam Cai Wanchun. According to the late Qing record 'Gengzi Guobian Ji' by Luo Dunrong, 'At dusk, they arrived at Guan Shi in Changping. The Emperor and the Empress Dowager had not eaten for a day.' The villagers offered them sorghum, which they ate with their hands. The Empress Dowager wept, and the Emperor wept as well. It was cold, and they could not find bedding. A village woman offered a cloth quilt that was still damp from washing. Afterward, Cixi slept in the main hall, the Emperor and his consorts slept in the side halls, and the rest of the party stayed in nearby civilian homes.

The next day, Li Xijun, the owner of the Xiguangyu Escort Agency in Xiguanshi, prepared twenty mule-drawn sedan chairs, along with silver ingots and grain for the imperial party. A villager named Yang Juchuan volunteered to lead the way, and Li Jintang provided an escort to the next stop. Wu Lu, a compiler at the Hanlin Academy who experienced the Gengzi Incident, wrote in his 'Hundred Sorrows Poems': 'The imperial carriage stopped at the ancient mosque, and the happy villagers offered their humble vegetables.' They donated a thousand pieces of gold for imperial use and transported a hundred loads of grain from their own stores. In times of hardship, they opened the channels for speech, and I read the imperial edict with tears streaming down my face. I sigh at the border officials who received such great favor, while they live in deep seclusion in their offices. "

Two years later, when Cixi returned to Beijing, she granted silver for the renovation of Xiguanshi. She also had glazed tiles, roof treasures, and ridge beasts fired at the Liulihe Imperial Kiln to be gifted to the Xiguanshi Mosque and the mosque in Gaotou Village, Wuji County, which was the hometown of Imam Cai Wanchun. Cixi inscribed a plaque for the mosque that read 'Spiritual Inspiration Manifested,' the Guangxu Emperor inscribed 'Loyalty Dedicated to the Sovereign,' Prince Su Shanqi inscribed 'Pure Emptiness Tastes of the Way,' and Prince Li inscribed 'Profound and Infinite.' She also granted Yang Juchuan, who helped lead the way, the title of 'Marquis of Leading the Way,' and Li Jintang, who helped with the escort, the rank of a second-grade official in Zhejiang. Many others, including village elder Li Xilun and Imam Cai Wanchun, were awarded fifth, sixth, and seventh-grade official headwear.

In 1958, when a communal canteen was set up, the plaques in the main hall were taken down and used as cutting boards. Their whereabouts are now unknown. After the 1960s, the main hall was turned into a warehouse, and all the plaques and couplets were burned. All buildings except for the main hall and the main gate were demolished until it was restored and reopened in 1982.































The 1879 stone tablet titled 'Record of Li Yongxin's Donation for Annual Repairs in Xiguanshi Village' documents how Li Yongxin donated land and silver to renovate the mosque. The author of the tablet, Ma Zhaoqing, was a famous Qing Dynasty scholar. His compilation, the 'Changping Outer Gazetteer,' corrected and supplemented the 'Changping Prefecture Gazetteer,' making it a valuable historical source. Ma Zhaoqing also wrote a couplet for the Xiguanshi main hall: 'Since the Tang Dynasty, thirty volumes of treasure have been received, pure and clean;' Follow Allah's commands, observe the five daily namaz, and lead the people to prosperity and peace. Unfortunately, it was destroyed in the 1960s.







The 1909 stele titled 'Public Record of Donations for the Xiguan Mosque School' notes that during the Boxer Rebellion, Xiguanshi was not only spared from harassment but also received rewards for hosting Empress Dowager Cixi and her entourage during their flight west. Consequently, local elders donated money and land to support the mosque and its school.

The stele mentions that many donors held official ranks. Among them was Li Jintang, owner of the Xiguangyu Security Firm, who had protected Cixi. He later followed a general to oversee Xinjiang. When a Uyghur uprising broke out in Ili, Li Jintang returned to his hometown of Xiguanshi via Russia under the protection of Uyghurs, and he passed away shortly after.

Dongyuhe Sheep Shop Public Fund

Li Jintang, Second-Rank Official with Peacock Feather, Zhejiang Expectant Circuit Intendant

Li Mingda, Fifth-Rank Official with Peacock Feather

Li Guozhen, Fifth-Rank Official

Li Xilun, Fifth-Rank Official with Blue Feather, Candidate for County Magistrate

Li Baochen, Sixth-Rank Official with Blue Feather

Li Yukuan, Li Xitian, Li Xi'en, Li Xihou, Hai Mingzhu, and Li Sheng, all Sixth-Rank Officials

Li Zhensheng, Seventh-Rank Official







Additionally, the tomb garden of the sage Bo Hazhi in Changping also contains a donation stele from 1909. It lists Hui Muslims from Xiguanshi who donated to the tomb, and some names overlap with those on the Xiguanshi stele:

Ma Jinsheng, Imam of the mosque

Zhang Jizong, Gao Zhaoming, and Li Chunze, Seventh-Rank Officials and religious leaders

Li Jintang, Second-Rank Official with Peacock Feather, Zhejiang Expectant Circuit Intendant

Yang Deqing, Third-Rank Official with Peacock Feather

Li Minghe, Li Mingda, and Li Fengrui, Fifth-Rank Officials with Peacock Feather

Li Baochen, Fifth-Rank Official with Blue Feather

Li Xilun, Fifth-Rank Official with Blue Feather, Candidate for County Magistrate

Huang Jinbao, Fifth-Rank Official

Li Qingyuan, Li Xichun, Li Xihou, and Li Xi'en, Sixth-Rank Officials

Li Qingzhen, Li Qing, Zhang Dahai, and Li Guishen, Seventh-Rank Officials

Li Xilin, Candidate for Prefect

Wen Shengkang and others

Ma Qi, graduate of the Shuntian Police Academy







Fayuan Mosque outside Deshengmen

I took the 919 bus from Shahe to its final stop outside Deshengmen, which was the perfect chance to visit the Fayuan Mosque.

The founding date of Fayuan Mosque is unknown. It was originally located on a slope north of Jiaochangkou outside Deshengmen. It was moved and expanded during the Kangxi era, and the main hall was expanded again during the Republic of China period, featuring four interconnected roofs and a four-cornered pavilion top.

The entrance to the main hall now displays a plaque reading 'All Things Return to Truth,' inscribed in 1928 by General Ma Fuxiang. In the late 1920s, Ma Fuxiang was living in Beijing. He studied Islamic classics deeply and donated money to help Muslims build schools. In 1928, he helped organize the Beiping Muslim Middle School, later renamed Northwest Public School, and donated over a dozen school buildings he had purchased in the backyard of the Dongsi Mosque to the Chengda Teachers' College.



















I bought two door hangings (mendu'er) at the mosque. These are quite old. The one in the picture below shows how they looked after hanging on the streets of Xiguanshi village for many years.







Digging for records at Fusheng Record Store

There is a long-standing record shop called Fusheng near Bingjiaokou outside Deshengmen. When I was a child, they were located in Ping'anli before moving to the area outside Deshengmen. After leaving the mosque, I bought two albums related to the faith at their shop.





One is a cut-out disc of early music from 1978-1982 by the Pakistani Sufi Qawwali master Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.

Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan is known as the 'King of Qawwali' and had a major influence on South Asian pop music. He was born in 1948 into a Punjabi Muslim family in Pakistan. It is said his family has passed down Qawwali music for nearly 600 years, singing mainly in Urdu and Punjabi.

Nusrat performed for the first time in London at the WOMAD festival in 1985, and after that, he toured all over the world. In the late 1980s, he signed with the British world music label Real World. He released a series of world music albums in the 1990s and collaborated with many different types of musicians, earning him the title of a pioneer of world music.

Unlike his later polished remix and fusion albums, this early collection features raw, traditional Sufi Qawwali music that was not yet well-known to the Western mainstream.

South Asian classical music is traditionally divided into different schools (gharānā), which are passed down steadily through the relationship between master and student. Nusrat belonged to the ancient Qawwal Bacchon school, founded in the late 13th century by Amir Khusrow, a sage of the Chisti Sufi order in Delhi, India. It developed and was passed down in Delhi, centered at the shrine (Nizamuddin Dargah) of the Sufi saint Nizamuddin, until it moved to Pakistan during the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. In 2018, I was lucky enough to experience traditional Qawwali music at a Sufi shrine in Delhi.













Another album is the English nasheed (nasheed) album Allah Knows, created in 2006 by South African Muslim musician Zain Bhikha for his son Rashid and all Muslim children approaching puberty.

Zain Bhikha was born in South Africa in 1974. He began releasing albums as a singer after 1994 and is very famous in the South African Muslim community. In the 1990s, the famous British singer Yusuf Islam (stage name Cat Stevens), who converted to Islam, began creating English nasheed music and received a great response. After hearing Zain's album, Yusuf invited him to London to collaborate.

In 2000, with Zain's help, Yusuf released the album A is for Allah for Muslim children, which is a representative album of modern English nasheed music. After this, Zain released a series of nasheed albums, the most famous of which is Mountains of Makkah, released after he returned from Hajj in 2004.

Nasheed means chanting in Arabic, and the themes are mostly about faith, religious history, and culture. Historically, there has been disagreement within the faith about whether music is allowed and how it should be used. Some Muslims believe that religious music should only be sung a cappella or accompanied by drums, while others believe that any instrument is fine as long as the performance and content do not violate the faith.

Historically, the most famous nasheed music is the Ta'zieh music of the Shia sect commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein and the South Asian Sufi Qawwali music. There is also Madih nabawi music, which is praise for the Prophet that circulates throughout the Arab world. After the 2000s, modern nasheed music began to develop everywhere. to Yusuf Islam and Zain Bhikha mentioned above, the Malaysian group Raihan has been the most famous nasheed group in Malaysia since the late 90s, and they were invited by the Queen of England to perform in the UK in 1997. In 2005, the Washington-based nasheed group Native Deen released the album Deen You Know, which combined American rap with nasheed music.







Zhengyuan Mosque

I rode my bike from outside Deshengmen to the Zhengyuan Mosque in Dongguanying Hutong inside Xizhimen.

The predecessor of Zhengyuan Mosque was the Beigouyan Mosque inside Xizhimen, which was built during the Daoguang reign. After 1946, Beigouyan was renamed Zhaodengyu Road, so it was also called Zhaodengyu Road Mosque. In 1997, it was relocated and rebuilt at its current site due to demolition, and it was renamed Zhengyuan Mosque. According to the Beijing City Gazetteer written in the 1930s, the mosque in Beijing originally called Zhengyuan should be the Jiaochangkou Mosque outside Fuchengmen.

The mosque has just finished renovations. The tiles and dome were removed from the gate, leaving only the plaque inscribed by Hei Boli, the former chairman of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.















After visiting the mosque, I went home, cooked two home-style dishes, and had dinner with Zainab.



Nandouyacai Mosque

After eating, I went to the Nandouyacai Mosque inside Chaoyangmen to attend the Isha prayer.

People say the Nandouyacai Mosque was originally a mosque, which was bought and rebuilt by Muslims with funds raised in 1798 (the third year of the Jiaqing reign). In 2002, due to the demolition of Chaonei Street, the mosque was moved more than 20 meters to the south and rebuilt, changing its entrance to face west toward Douban Hutong.



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Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Firoz Shah Kotla, Jinns and Ashoka Pillar is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Continuing the Seven Cities of Delhi series. The Seven Cities of Delhi refers to the seven historical cities built in Delhi, including Lal Kot, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Purana Qila, and Shahjahanabad. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Firoz Shah Kotla, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Continuing the Seven Cities of Delhi series. The Seven Cities of Delhi refers to the seven historical cities built in Delhi, including Lal Kot, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Ferozabad, Purana Qila, and Shahjahanabad.

I have already written about four of them, and this article introduces the fifth city, Ferozabad. The city is named after its builder, Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351-1388), who was the successor to Muhammad, the builder of the fourth city, and the nephew of Ghazi Malik, the builder of the third city.

Founding the City

During the late reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq (reigned 1325-1351) of the Tughlaq dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate fell into chaos. Not only Hindu forces but even his own generals broke away from the Sultanate to become independent. In 1351, Muhammad died while on his way to Sindh to resolve tribal wars in Gujarat.

After Muhammad died, no one wanted to take over the mess of the Delhi Sultanate. Eventually, after much persuasion from his ministers, Muhammad's cousin Firuz Shah Tughlaq reluctantly agreed to succeed him as Sultan.

During Firuz's reign, the Sultanate's territory had shrunk significantly, and he had to face numerous rebellions from Gujarat in the west, Bengal in the east, and Warangal in the south. Firuz kept in mind the mistakes his cousin Muhammad made, so he stopped trying to reconquer lost lands and focused on consolidating his current rule.

To do this, Firuz worked on infrastructure, including digging canals, building reservoirs, and constructing nursing homes and hospitals. In 1354, three years after taking the throne, Firuz built a new capital in northern Delhi, which later generations called Ferozabad, the fifth city of Delhi.



The ruins of Ferozabad drawn by William Hodges in 1780.

Feroz Shah Kotla: 1354.

People say before New Delhi was built in the 20th century, many architectural ruins of Ferozabad remained, but today only the core part, Feroz Shah Kotla, is clearly visible.



A map of Feroz Shah Kotla, with a diagram of the site on the left and a view from Google Earth on the right.

Rather than a fortress, this place is more like a palace surrounded by walls. Although the castle has tall walls, there are no platforms for soldiers to fight from, and the arrow slits on the walls look more decorative than functional for battle. Perhaps Firuz never considered using this castle for war, but instead used it as a symbol of power.



The gate of Feroz Shah Kotla drawn by William Orme and Thomas Daniell in 1802.



The gate of Feroz Shah Kotla today.



Arrow slits used only for decoration, with no platform for archers to stand on.

The palace ruins after passing through the gate.









The Jinn in the Castle

Every Thursday afternoon, many people come to Feroz Shah Kotla to light candles and incense by the walls, write their wishes on paper, and pray that the Jinn in the castle will make their wishes come true.



In Islam, Jinn are invisible to the naked eye and, along with angels and devils, are one of the three spiritual entities in the Islamic system. According to the Quran, Jinn were created from fire before Allah created humans; they have a lifestyle similar to humans but have more powerful abilities. There are many descriptions of Jinn in One Thousand and One Nights, the most famous being the genie in Aladdin's lamp.

In pre-Islamic Arabia, Jinn were guardian spirits worshipped by people. But as the early Islamic concept of monotheism solidified, Jinn were placed on an equal footing with humans, subject to judgment and capable of entering heaven or hell.

As Islam spread, the concept of Jinn spread to North Africa, Persia, Central Asia, and India. During the Abbasid era, the concept of Jinn was introduced to India from the Sindh region, gradually becoming part of local folk beliefs and spawning many legends.

The image below shows the Two-Horned One, Zulqarnayn, mentioned in the Quran, who used iron blocks to melt steel and build a barrier with the help of Jinn to protect people from invasion. This story originates from the legend of Alexander the Great and spread to the Arab region through Syria.



An illustration from The Art of Divination, painted by Ja'far al-Sadiq in the 1550s, kept at the Chester Beatty Library.

The image below shows the story of Imam Ali defeating a Jinn.



An illustration from the book Ahsan-ol-Kobar, painted in 1568, kept at the Golestan Palace in Tehran.

Feroz Shah Mosque: 1354.

Legend has it that after Timur the Great occupied Delhi in 1398, he performed namaz in a Jami Masjid. Timur loved this mosque so much that he ordered a mosque of the same design to be built in Samarkand. Many people believe this Jami Mosque is the great mosque inside Feroz Shah Kotla.

In fact, after Emperor Timur returned to Samarkand, he did build a famous Bibi-Khanym Mosque. However, this mosque does not look like the Feroz Shah Mosque; it looks more like the Begampur Mosque in Jahanpanah, the fourth city of Delhi. According to historical records, Emperor Timur mainly lived in Jahanpanah while he was in Delhi. Therefore, the Feroz Shah Mosque may not be the Jami Mosque that legend says Timur loved.

But a major event did happen at the Feroz Shah Mosque. In 1759, the Mughal Empire's vizier Imad-ul-Mulk planned to murder the entire family of the fourteenth Mughal emperor, Alamgir II. On November 29, the vizier told the emperor that a holy man had come to greet him. The emperor was very excited and immediately set off for the Feroz Shah Mosque to meet the holy man, where he was then assassinated. The death of Alamgir II caused great grief among Muslims in the Mughal Empire. Armies from various places soon rose up to attack the vizier Imad-ul-Mulk, and he had to flee Delhi.

The Feroz Shah Mosque has the typical architectural style of the Tughlaq dynasty. The main prayer hall has almost collapsed, but the ground floor is still well-preserved.

Outside the mosque







Mosque gate









People performing namaz







Ashoka Pillar: 1356

Right next to the mosque is the famous Delhi-Topra Ashokan Pillar.

In 1356, while Feroz Shah was passing through a place called Topra in northern India during an expedition, he discovered a famous Ashoka pillar. Feroz Shah transported this pillar back to the capital, Firozabad, and built a pyramid-shaped structure right next to the mosque to house it.

The Ashoka pillar is one of the columns inscribed with edicts that the famous King Ashoka (reigned 273–232 BC) of the ancient Indian Maurya Empire erected across South Asia. There are 20 remaining today, two of which were brought to Delhi by Feroz Shah. Besides the Delhi-Topra pillar, another pillar called the Delhi-Meerut pillar was placed in Feroz Shah's hunting palace.

The original inscriptions on the pillar were in the Prakrit language written in Brahmi script. When Feroz Shah found the pillar, the Brahmi script could no longer be read. It was not until 1837 that the famous Indian antiquities scholar James Princep fully deciphered the Brahmi script and translated its meaning. to the Buddhist teachings similar to other Ashoka pillars, the biggest difference with this pillar is that it mentions tax issues.

around the Brahmi script, there are some Sanskrit records of the victory in war by Visala Deva Vigraharaja IV of the Chauhan dynasty.



The Ashoka pillar drawn by a Delhi artist between 1820 and 1825



The Ashoka pillar photographed by Samuel Bourne in 1860



The Ashoka pillar photographed in 1880 by an unknown photographer

The Ashoka pillar today













Water tank

In the center of the garden on the northwest side of the Ashoka pillar, there is a circular water tank (boli). There is a large underground canal on the east side of the tank, and water flows into the tank through this canal. In the era of Feroz Shah, this was a summer retreat for the Sultan's court, and people used the water in the tank to cool off and bathe.

Today, the water tank is still used to irrigate the garden, but it has been locked and is closed to visitors after a suicide occurred here in early 2014.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Sultanate Palaces and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In our last post, The Third City of Delhi—Indestructible Beautiful Ruins, we discussed how Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq founded the Tughlaq dynasty, the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1320. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Sultanate History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In our last post, The Third City of Delhi—Indestructible Beautiful Ruins, we discussed how Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq founded the Tughlaq dynasty, the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1320. In February 1325, Ghiyath al-Din died when a pavilion collapsed on him while he was returning to Delhi from Bengal. His son, Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, succeeded him, and he is the main character of this post.

Table of Contents

1. The Founding of Jahanpanah

2. The Mysterious Sultan's Palace

1. Upper Platform: Khalji Dynasty

2. Single-story Hall: Khalji Dynasty

3. Octagonal Tower: Early Tughlaq Dynasty

4. Lower Platform: Late Tughlaq Dynasty

5. Cemetery and Religious Site: Lodi Dynasty

6. Circular Dome: Lodi Dynasty

3. Begampur Mosque

4. Khirki Mosque

5. Kalusarai Mosque

1. The Founding of Jahanpanah

Between 1326 and 1327, to prevent invasion by the Mongol army, Muhammad bin Tughluq connected Delhi's first city, Lal Kot, and its second city, Siri, with walls to create the fourth city of Delhi, Jahanpanah.

For information on Lal Kot and Siri, please see my previous two posts: The First City of Delhi—Minarets Reaching the Clouds and The Second City of Delhi—Turkic Fortress Against the Mongol Army.

The term Jahanpanah consists of two Persian words: Jahan means world, and panah means refuge, shelter, or sanctuary.

Muhammad bin Tughluq did not just expand the capital; he also greatly expanded the territory of the Delhi Sultanate. In the image below, dark green shows the territory in 1320, and light green shows the territory in 1330.



The famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta lived in Delhi between 1333 and 1341. Based on his travelogues, we can infer that at the time, Lal Kot was the city center, Siri was a military camp, and Jahanpanah in the middle was the palace area. Ibn Battuta said the Tughlaq Sultan originally wanted to build a super-city connecting Delhi's existing Lal Kot, Siri, and the third city, Tughlaqabad, but he did not carry it out due to limited funds.

The following is from The Travels of Ibn Battuta (Complete Translation).



The maps and hand-drawn illustrations scanned for this diary are all from the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building, which is an excellent resource on the history of Delhi.



Map of Jahanpanah:



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

Shortly after Jahanpanah was completed, Muhammad bin Tughluq suddenly decided to move the capital to the Deccan Plateau in the south and established a new capital called Daulatabad.

Muhammad bin Tughluq forced the population of Delhi to migrate on a large scale, and those who refused were killed. However, the move failed because Daulatabad lacked enough drinking water due to drought, and Muhammad bin Tughluq eventually moved back to Delhi. Although this relocation failed, it significantly influenced history because many Muslims who moved to the Deccan region did not return to Delhi, leading to a large increase in the Muslim population in central and southern India.

2. The Mysterious Sultan's Palace

Within the ruins of Jahanpanah, there is a huge building site called Bijaya Mandal, which means Victory Platform in Hindi. Bijaya Mandal may be the most puzzling historical building in Delhi. On one hand, we know very little about secular architecture from the Delhi Sultanate period, and on the other, the building changed significantly across different eras.

Much evidence suggests this was likely the palace site of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, but without systematic archaeological excavation, we still cannot be certain about the functions of the existing structures.

Ibn Battuta did not describe the Sultan's palace in much detail. He only mentioned that people had to pass through three gates to reach a palace called bazar suntun, which means thousand pillars. He said these wooden pillars were painted and supported a beautifully carved wooden roof.

It is hard to imagine the appearance of this hall because most buildings preserved from this period are mosques, tombs, and madrasas, with almost no secular buildings remaining. Based on Ibn Battuta's description, this hall likely had long colonnades and a flat roof. One question remains: how did they keep a wooden flat roof waterproof? Regarding the interior of the hall, we only know it had exquisite carvings and the walls were likely decorated with paintings, which were probably removed later during the iconoclastic movement of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388).

Archaeological digs show this building was used for a very long time. Historical records mention that both Sultan Alauddin Khalji (reigned 1296-1316) and Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reigned 1325-1351) had a palace called bazar suntun. Although Ibn Battuta wrote that Alauddin Khalji’s palace was in the city of Siri, these two palaces are likely the same place, and they are probably Bijaya Mandal.

The stone hall at Bijaya Mandal likely dates back to the time of Alauddin Khalji, while the tower next to it was almost certainly built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Archaeological findings show these buildings were still in use after the time of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388). In the early 16th century, during the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526), the site was used by a Sufi sheikh named Sheikh Hasan Tahir.

1. Upper Platform: Khalji Dynasty



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

The oldest part of this complex is likely the upper platform, which may have been built by Alauddin Khalji (reigned 1296-1316). You can see damaged, sloping retaining walls on the west, east, and south sides of the platform. There are two levels of arched basements visible from the east end of the platform, and a similar structure exists on the west end. The main building likely stood in the middle of the slightly raised area of the platform.



A view from the lower platform looking up at the upper platform, the single-story hall, and the octagonal tower.

2. Single-story Hall: Khalji Dynasty

On top of the platform sits a single-story hall, and above that is an octagonal tower. The hall was also likely built during the time of Alauddin Khalji. There are remains of a balcony in front of the hall, and the bases of the pillars are still there. You can walk from the pillars into the main room, where the roof is held up by stone columns. Behind the first row of stone columns are two large pits half a meter deep. In the early 20th century, the Archaeological Survey of India found many items here, including ivory, porcelain, glass necklaces, pearls, red coral, rubies, and coins dating from 1296 to 1390. This place was likely a treasure storage room at the time.

The hall seems to have had entrances on all four sides, but they were likely blocked when Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the heavy platform under the octagonal tower. The first entrance on the north wall next to the platform also seems to have been changed. Different foundation remains show there was once another room on the edge of the platform on the north side of the hall.



Below is the upper platform, and above is the single-story hall.



Looking down at the upper platform from the roof of the single-story hall.

3. Octagonal Tower: Early Tughlaq Dynasty



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

The octagonal tower above the single-story hall was reportedly built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reigned 1325-1351). A slope followed by shallow, wide steps leads to the base of the octagonal tower. There is much evidence that the octagonal tower once extended further to the north. The three doors with quartzite frames and the narrow stairs leading to the roof were added later during the late Tughlaq dynasty.

Inside the octagonal tower is a symmetrical, cross-shaped room with the same openings on each side. In the middle of summer, the inside of the tower stays cooler and catches a breeze.

On the roof of the tower, there are two well-preserved sockets. One still has a groove around the edge, which suggests it likely held something on top. Besides these two sockets, there are actually traces of sockets on every level of the stairs. Based on the depth of these sockets, they likely held heavy, tall pillars. It is thought that there might have once been a pavilion (baradari) on top of the tower. There is also a row of small sockets along the edge of the roof, which may have held smaller upright posts.

We can guess that this tower was likely a viewing platform for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq, but the biggest question is how the Sultan got up there, as his fancy clothes would have been hard to wear through the narrow stairs that exist today. It is very likely there was another staircase at the time, although Indian palaces usually did not have fancy stairs and kept them inside thick walls.







The narrow stairs leading to the octagonal tower.





The octagonal tower.



Inside the octagonal tower.

4. Lower Platform: Late Tughlaq Dynasty



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

You can go down from the upper platform to a larger lower platform. There are retaining walls on the east and west sides of the lower platform. The buildings on the lower platform date to two periods: the wall foundations are made of large quartzite, while the upper parts feature masonry typical of the Tughlaq dynasty. Archaeological excavations in the 1920s uncovered stone pillar bases on the lower platform, some of which are still visible in the southwest corner today. On the other side of the platform, near the crumbling east retaining wall, you can still see delicate plaster flooring. These ruins may all be part of the palace Ibn Battuta called the bazar sutun.

There is a tall retaining wall between the two platforms, featuring a series of vertical slots that were likely used to hold wooden pillars or decorations. Except for the ramp on the east side of the upper platform, there is no other way to connect the two platforms. The wooden pillars in the lower vertical slots may have supported a higher floor, forming the Sultan's palace along with the stone hall on the south side. Another theory is that the lower platform was the Sultan's palace and the upper platform was his sleeping quarters, which is why the two levels are separate.



Wall foundations of the lower platform.



Wall foundations of the lower platform.

5. Cemetery and Religious Site: Lodi Dynasty



About halfway across the platform, the ground level rises significantly, which likely marks the general area of the palace. Far from the palace is a small cemetery where Sheikh Hasan Tahir and his descendants are buried. This sheikh lived during the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526) and died in 1503. It is said he lived in Bijay Mandal for a long time.

There is an arcade-style building at the very edge of the outer platform of the cemetery. On the north side of the building, there are remains of a long arcade wall, with pillars and arches in the Lodi dynasty style. There are also two sturdy towers, with black plaster coatings on top that reflect the Tughlaq dynasty style. It is believed that this may have been a khanqah (a place for Sufi gatherings) built by Sheikh Hasan Tahir.



Looking out at the lower platform and the sheikh's tomb from the single-story hall.



6. Circular Dome: Lodi Dynasty

Next to Bijaya Mandal is a building with a circular dome, thought to have been built in the 15th century. The purpose of this building remains unknown, and its structure is quite unique: it has two openings on each of the north, south, and west sides, while the east side is sealed. Foundation evidence shows there was once another building on the west side of this structure.













3. Begampur Mosque

Begampur Mosque is the most important mosque in the city of Jahanpanah and the most representative mosque of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate still standing today; it is said to have been designed by the Iranian architect Zahir al-Din al-Jayush.

There are two theories about when the mosque was built: one suggests it is one of the seven mosques built by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, the wazir (prime minister) of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351–1388), while the other suggests it was built when Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351.

In 1921, the Archaeological Survey of India cleared out the residents living inside the mosque, giving it the appearance it has today.



Begampur Mosque is magnificent, with a spacious courtyard surrounded by arcades. There is a circular domed building in the center of each of the four sides; the east, north, and west ones are gates, and the largest one on the west side is the main prayer hall.

The mosque is very simple, with only a few carvings inside the main prayer hall. These stone carvings and the dome were once covered in shimmering white plaster, but most of it has fallen off and turned black.

The gate.





Looking inside from the gate.



Inside the gate.



The corridor on the northeast side.



Southwest corridor



Courtyard



Overlook





North gate



South gate



The corridor on the north side of the main prayer hall has collapsed.











Main prayer hall





Mihrab





Main prayer hall dome



Minimal decoration





4. Khirki Mosque

Khirki Mosque is another important mosque from the Tughlaq dynasty besides Begumpur Mosque, but its design is very different from Begumpur Mosque. This mosque is undoubtedly one of the seven mosques built by the prime minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, and it was likely built in the 1370s.

Khirki Mosque sits much higher than the ground, and a trench has now formed around it. The mosque has a large gate on the north, east, and south sides, each with small minarets on top, and there is a large minaret at each of the four corners of the mosque.





From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building

Mosque facade



From the book Delhi—A Thousand Years of Building





The gate.



The biggest feature of Khirki Mosque is that its roof is almost completely covered, with only four small square courtyards, which is very rare in the Delhi Sultanate. Because there are only four small open-air courtyards, the mosque cannot be fully lit even during the day, and it is darkest in front of the mihrab in the prayer hall.

The structure made of square pillars and circular domes gives this mosque a strong sense of geometric beauty. I arrived at dusk, and even though it was very dark, I was still stunned.







Courtyard





Mihrab



Collapsed dome in the northeast corner





Corner tower



5. Kalusarai Mosque

Kalusarai Mosque is one of the seven mosques built by the aforementioned prime minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul. It is currently badly damaged and several families live inside, so the door was locked when I went and I could not enter. This mosque has a more complex structure than the other six mosques built by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, but it is still in the typical Tughlaq dynasty style.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: Delhi — Tughlaqabad Fort, Ruins and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In my first article, The First City of Delhi: The Tower Reaching the Clouds, I wrote about the Delhi Sultanate's Mamluk dynasty building the Qutub Minar. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Tughlaqabad Fort, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In my first article, The First City of Delhi: The Tower Reaching the Clouds, I wrote about the Delhi Sultanate's Mamluk dynasty building the Qutub Minar. In the second article, The Second City of Delhi: The Turkic Fortress Defending Against the Mongol Army, I covered how the Khalji dynasty built a fortress to stop the Mongols. In this article, the Delhi Sultanate enters its third era: the Tughlaq dynasty.

Table of Contents

1. The Nemesis of the Afghan Mongols

1. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

2. Defeating the Mongols Twice

3. Taking the Fight to the Mongols

2. The Rise of the Tughlaq Dynasty

1. The Death of Alauddin Khalji

2. The Fall of the Khalji Dynasty

3. The Founding of the Tughlaq Dynasty

3. Building the City of Tughlaqabad

1. Legends of the Fortress Construction

2. The Curse of the Sufi Saint

4. Tughlaqabad Fortress

1. City Layout

2. The City Walls

3. The Palace District

4. The Citadel Area

5. The Tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

6. Adilabad Fort

1. The Nemesis of the Afghan Mongols

1. Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq or Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) was originally named Ghazi Malik. The title Ghazi refers to a warrior for Islam.

Ghazi came from a humble background. His father was a slave from the Qaraunah Turkic tribe, and his mother was a Hindu. The Qaraunah were a Turkic tribe living in Afghanistan under the Mongol Empire. In 1238, the Mongols moved them to the northwest border of India to defend against the Delhi Sultanate. This tribe took part in almost every Mongol invasion of India after 1241. Many were captured by the Delhi Sultanate and became slaves, which is how Ghazi's father arrived in the Delhi Sultanate.

Ghazi was a talented military leader. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji of the Khalji dynasty, he became the military governor of Dipalpur on the northwest border of the Delhi Sultanate and began fighting the Mongols.



The location of Dipalpur

2. Defeating the Mongols Twice

In my previous article, The Second City of Delhi: The Turkic Fortress Defending Against the Mongol Army, I mentioned that Ghazi served as a general during the two attacks on the Delhi Sultanate by the Chagatai Khanate Mongol army in 1305 and 1306.

During the 1305 Mongol invasion, the 14th-century Delhi chronicler Amir Khusrau wrote that the Mongol army was defeated as miserably as a swarm of mosquitoes trying to resist a strong wind. However, historical records do not provide many details about Ghazi's specific role in that battle.

When the Mongols invaded in 1306, the commander of the Delhi Sultanate was Malik Kafur, and Ghazi served as deputy commander, leading the vanguard. After the Sultanate's main army set out, Ghazi's vanguard quickly reached the northwest border and spotted the Mongol scouts. He reported the Mongol army's position to Kafur. The Delhi Sultanate's army moved at full speed and completely crushed the Chagatai Mongol army on the banks of the Ravi River, a tributary of the Indus River. A large number of Mongols were killed or captured.



The Chor Minar, a tower of heads built during the Delhi Khalji dynasty. The 225 holes on it are said to have once held the heads of killed Mongol captives.

3. Taking the Fight to the Mongols

According to the chronicler Amir Khusrau, the crushing defeat of the Mongols in 1306 caused the Mongols in Afghanistan to fear the Delhi Sultanate. They retreated to the mountains near the famous ancient city of Ghazni in southeastern Afghanistan. In 1307, Duwa, the Khan of the Chagatai Khanate, died, and Central Asia fell into chaos. His successors were unable to organize any more large-scale invasions.

On the other hand, defeating the Mongols repeatedly gave Ghazi a huge boost in confidence. He changed the Khalji dynasty's defensive policy against the Mongols and began to actively invade the Chagatai Khanate's territory in Afghanistan. Every year, Ghazi raided important Mongol cities in Afghanistan such as Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, and Garmsir, and even briefly recaptured Lahore, the early capital of the Delhi Sultanate.

The chronicler Amir Khusrau wrote in his book Tughluq-Nama that Ghazi won 20 battles, mostly against the Mongols. The famous Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta passed by a mosque in Multan in the 14th century, where a stone tablet was inscribed with the claim that Ghazi had defeated the Mongols 29 times.

In this way, Ghazi became the military commander of the Punjab region on the northwestern frontier of the Delhi Sultanate.



Afghan cities under Mongol rule that were attacked by Ghazi.

2. The Rise of the Tughlaq Dynasty

1. The Death of Alauddin Khalji

In his final years, Sultan Alauddin Khalji grew to distrust his officers and favored only the eunuch slave general Malik Kafur.

In 1315, Alauddin fell seriously ill and appointed Kafur as regent (Na'ib), giving him real power.

Alauddin died on the night of January 4, 1316. The next day, Kafur gathered all the important officials and nobles to read the will, which named Alauddin's 6-year-old son Shihabuddin as the new Sultan, with Kafur as regent.

2. The Fall of the Khalji Dynasty

Kafur was regent for only about a month, during which he constantly persecuted Alauddin's family, upsetting some of Alauddin's former armed guards (paiks). Led by Mubashshir, the guards beheaded Kafur. They released Alauddin's older son Mubarak Shah, who had been imprisoned by Kafur, and named him the new regent.

On April 14, 1316, Mubarak Shah deposed his younger brother to become the new Sultan, taking the title Qutubuddin.

Mubarak Shah was bisexual and had same-sex relationships with the brothers Hasan and Husamuddin. Hasan and Husamuddin were brought to the Delhi Sultanate court as Hindu slaves in 1305. To survive, the brothers converted to Islam and served Mubarak Shah.

The relationship between Mubarak Shah and Hasan was no secret. They hugged and kissed in public, and Mubarak Shah gave Hasan the title Khusrau Khan.

In 1320, Mubarak Shah was killed by Khusrau Khan, ending the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.



Siri, the capital of the Delhi Sultanate's Khalji dynasty.

3. The Founding of the Tughlaq Dynasty

After Mubarak Shah was killed by Khusrau Khan, Khusrau Khan returned to his Hindu identity, which caused great dissatisfaction among Muslim officers and nobles. These officers and nobles supported Ghazi, the Punjab military commander who held a large army, to attack Khusrau Khan.

After Alauddin died, Ghazi gained military control over the Multan and Sindh regions. After receiving invitations from the Muslim officers and nobles, he and his son Fakhr Malik gathered a large army in Multan and Sindh and marched toward Delhi.

In September 1320, Ghazi defeated Khusrau Khan west of Siri in Delhi and established the Tughlaq dynasty, the third dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Ghazi received the title Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, and his son received the title Muhammad Shah Tughluq.

3. Building the City of Tughlaqabad

After establishing the Tughlaq dynasty, Ghazi began building Tughlaqabad Fort in 1321. The massive 6.5-kilometer-long city was completed in just two years.

1. Legends of the Fortress Construction

There is a famous legend about the construction of Tughlaqabad Fort. Once, while walking with the last Sultan of the Khalji dynasty, Mubarak Shah, Ghazi suggested that the Sultan build a stronger fortress in Delhi. The Sultan joked that if you ever become Sultan, you can build the fortress yourself. As it turned out, his words came true.

2. The Curse of the Sufi Saint

Ghazi dreamed of building a fortress so strong that it could withstand the fiercest attacks from the Mongol army. However, fate did not go as he wished.

Ghazi was passionate about his fortress and ordered all laborers in Delhi to help build it. At the time, the famous Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya was building a water tank (baoli), and his laborers were forced to go build the fortress instead. But these people preferred to work for the saint, so they built the fortress for Ghazi during the day and the water tank for Nizamuddin at night. When Ghazi found out, he was very angry and forbade the laborers from working for Nizamuddin. Nizamuddin issued a curse: 'Ya rahey ujjar, ya basey gujjar'. It roughly means 'Either it will remain desolate, or it will be inhabited by the Gujjar people.' "

After the sultanate fell, the nomadic Gujjar people (gujjar) took over the castle, and it turned into a wilderness.



Nizamuddin Dargah in Delhi

4. Tughlaqabad Fortress

1. City Layout

The entire city is divided into three parts:

The largest part is the residential area in the north. Old photos from the 1940s show streets and the ruins of the Friday mosque (Juma Masjid), but they are hard to recognize now.

The southwest side is the palace area, where the buildings have collapsed significantly, though there is one well-preserved water well.

The southeast side is the smallest but most interesting part, the fortress area, which has many architectural ruins like houses, storage rooms, and a mosque.



The blue line shows the existing city walls.



2. The City Walls

Tughlaqabad City features the sloped rubble walls typical of the Tughlaq dynasty. The walls are 10 to 15 meters high and reinforced by two-story circular bastions. The city is said to have had as many as 52 gates, but only 13 remain today.

The southeast corner tower of the fortress area wall



The south city wall



The inside of the south city wall







The picture below shows the view from the northwest corner tower of the fortress area looking toward the east wall of the palace area.



In the picture below, the lower wall is the east wall of the palace area, and the higher one is the west wall of the fortress area.



Standing on the fortress area wall looking west toward the palace area wall.



The east wall of the palace area



The west wall of the fortress area



The collapsed west gate of the fortress area



The interior of the high platform on the west wall of the fortress area



3. The Palace District

The palace ruins of Tughlaqabad City have collapsed badly, so you can only imagine their former glory.













West of the palace is a water tank (baoli) that provided water for the castle.





4. The Citadel Area

The fortress area is the part of the city with the richest ruins.



Looking down at the entire fortress area:







A small mosque in the fortress area







The mihrab that indicates the direction of Mecca



The fortress area has a classic underground storage room:

The north entrance of the storage room



The south entrance of the storage room



The passage of the storage room, with individual warehouses on both sides.



There are also some residential ruins inside the fortress area.





5. The Tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq

I mentioned earlier the curse that the Sufi saint Nizamuddin placed on Ghiyas-ud-din. Another famous curse is "Hunuz Dilli dur ast". It means "Delhi is still far away." "

In 1324, Ghazi led an expedition to Bengal and succeeded. On the way back in February 1325, a wooden pavilion collapsed, crushing Ghazi and his second son, Mahmud Khan, to death. The famous 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta believed that his eldest son, Muhammad bin Tughluq, killed his father.

After Ghazi died, his eldest son Muhammad succeeded him as Sultan and buried Ghazi in a tomb south of the city of Tughlaqabad.



The Mausoleum of Ghiyas ud-Din Tughluq connects to the city of Tughlaqabad to the north via a causeway. This 182-meter causeway has 27 arches, and there used to be an artificial lake underneath. The lake has now been filled in to become flat land, and the middle of the causeway is split in two by a road.





Ghazi's tomb sits atop a granite fortress. The tomb has a square dome and is built of red sandstone, inlaid with white marble slabs.









Inside the tomb are three grave markers; the middle one belongs to Ghazi himself, and the other two belong to his wife and his son Muhammad.





Dome





Fortress corridors and architectural pieces on the ground





In the northwest corner of the fortress, there is another tomb containing an octagonal burial chamber. According to the stone inscription on the south gate, this tomb belongs to Zafar Khan.

Zafar Khan was a general of the Khalji dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, and he died in 1299 during a decisive battle between the Mongol army of the Chagatai Khanate and the Delhi Sultanate on the outskirts of Delhi.

One theory is that Zafar Khan's tomb was already built on the current site before this, and Ghazi incorporated it into the fortress when building his own tomb. Another theory is that Zafar Khan's tomb was intentionally built by Ghazi next to his own.













6. Adilabad Fort

After Muhammad took the throne in 1325, he built a medium-sized castle called Adilabad fort to the southeast of Tughlaqabad.

People say Adilabad fort was connected to Tughlaqabad by a 1-kilometer-long causeway, but the causeway has now disappeared.

Compared to the majestic Tughlaqabad, Adilabad fort is much smaller in scale and is divided into inner and outer walls.









West gate









East gate, which takes a bit of effort to climb up to



Looking down inside the city



The core area is the palace district



City wall









Besides the inner wall, there is also an outer wall



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