Reposted from the web

Summary: Muslim Dynasty Travel Project: Historic Islamic Cities Across Eurasia is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Between 2017 and 2019, I used my vacations to visit 10 countries and regions: Russia, Crimea (Russian-occupied), Uzbekistan, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Xinjiang, China. The account keeps its focus on Muslim Dynasties, Islamic History, Travel Project while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Between 2017 and 2019, I used my vacations to visit 10 countries and regions: Russia, Crimea (Russian-occupied), Uzbekistan, Iran, Azerbaijan, Turkey, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Xinjiang, China. I visited 35 ancient Muslim cities, covering 24 Muslim dynasties from the 11th to the 20th century. Afterward, I used my spare time to look up information and gradually put together some articles. I had already made plans for my 2020 visits, but they were suddenly interrupted. From being unable to leave the country to being unable to leave Beijing, my journey had to pause.

So far, I have finished sharing all 35 ancient cities. I am making a directory here to make it easier to look them up later. Also, my other project, Exploring and Eating in Muslim Communities, is still going on. During the year I could not leave Beijing, I started focusing on local historical sites of Hui Muslims and Islam in Beijing and visited some of them.

Eastern Europe: Volga Bulgaria (Bulgar Khanate), Golden Horde, Crimean Khanate, and Kazan Khanate.

The first article, 'Bulgar: A Thousand-Year-Old Capital on the Volga,' introduces the ancient city of Bulgar in Tatarstan, Russia. It was the capital of Volga Bulgaria in the 10th and 11th centuries and adopted Islam in 922. The Mongol army destroyed Bulgar in the 13th century, but it was soon rebuilt into an important economic, commercial, cultural, and religious center for the Golden Horde. Influenced by the Bulgar people, the Mongol rulers of the Golden Horde also began to follow Islam, building a series of mosques, minarets, and Muslim tombs in the city. Along with secular palaces and bathhouses, most of the ruins remaining in Bulgar today date back to this period. After the Golden Horde declined, the ancient city of Bulgar remained a Muslim religious center until the mid-16th century. The ancient city fell into complete decline after Ivan the Terrible of Russia conquered the Khanate of Kazan in 1552.



The second article, 'Chufut-Kale: The Founding Capital of the Crimean Khanate,' introduces the thousand-year-old Crimean city of Chufut-Kale. Chufut-Kale was first built by the Byzantines in the 5th to 6th centuries and was later inhabited by the Christian Alans. In 1299, the Golden Horde captured the Jewish fortress, and Tatar Muslims and Karaite Jews began living inside. In 1441, Hacı Giray, a descendant of Genghis Khan, minted coins with his name at the fortress, officially established the Crimean Khanate, and built many structures there. After the fortress well dried up in the mid-17th century, all the Tatars left, leaving only the Karaite Jews behind. From then on, Crimean Tatars began calling it the Jewish fortress. After the 19th century, the Karaite Jews also left, and the fortress eventually fell into ruins.



The third article, 'The Former Capital of the Crimean Khanate: Bakhchysarai,' explains that around 1500, Crimean Khan Meñli Giray built a new capital called Salachik in the valley west of the Jewish fortress. Salachik once had a complex of buildings including a palace, a court, baths, and a mosque, but now only a madrasa and the tomb of the founding Khan, Hacı Giray, remain. In 1532, Meñli Giray's son, Sahib Giray, built a new capital, Bakhchysarai, in the valley two kilometers downstream from Salachik. For the next 250 years, Bakhchysarai served as the capital of the Crimean Khanate, where successive Khans built palaces and various mosque structures. To the west of Bakhchisaray lies Eski Yurt, a large trading town that was already thriving during the Golden Horde era. It preserves several 14th to 16th-century tombs, including that of the Crimean Khan Mehmed II Giray.



The fourth chapter, 'Kazan Kremlin and the National Museum of the Republic of Tatarstan,' explains that Kazan started as a fortress for the Volga Bulgaria. After it joined the Golden Horde in the 13th century, it quickly became a central city in the middle reaches of the Volga River. After the Golden Horde collapsed in the 15th century, the Khanate of Kazan (1438–1552) was established. As the capital, Kazan's population grew rapidly. Many homes and public buildings were built, including the Khan's palace, courtyards, mosques, and tombs. In 1552, Ivan the Terrible of Russia attacked Kazan and destroyed the Khanate. He later ordered the Kazan Kremlin to be built on the site of the old fortress. The mosques, the Khan's palace, and the tombs were first used as armories and ammunition depots, but they were all eventually torn down in the 18th century. In 1977, hydraulic engineers accidentally dug up the tombs of the Kazan Khans while laying rainwater pipes at the Kazan Kremlin. It took until May 2017, after persistent efforts, to rebury the two Khans that were unearthed.



Uzbekistan: Timurid Empire, Khanate of Bukhara

The first article, 'Timur's Hometown: Shahrisabz,' introduces the ancient Sogdian city of Kesh, south of Samarkand. After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia in 1225, it became part of the Chagatai Khanate and was ruled by the Barlas tribe. In 1346, the last khan of the Chagatai Khanate was killed, and the khanate fell into chaos. Emir Timur, a noble from the Barlas tribe in Kesh, gradually united the Transoxiana region and established the vast Timurid Empire. After founding the Timurid Empire, Timur renamed his hometown Kesh to Shahrisabz. He built a massive palace and family mausoleum there, and many of these ruins still stand today. After Timur passed away, his grandson Ulugh Beg continued to develop Shahrisabz, building a grand mosque and new tombs in the city.



The second article, 'Timur's Capital: Samarkand,' explains that in 1370, Emperor Timur established the Timurid Empire on the ruins of the Chagatai Khanate and made Samarkand his capital. Over the next 35 years, Timur brought in great craftsmen, artists, and architects from across his empire to rebuild Samarkand, making it the undisputed center of Central Asia. During Timur's reign, Samarkand's population exceeded 150,000. Important landmarks like the Shah-i-Zinda necropolis and the Bibi-Khanym mosque remain preserved today. Between 1409 and 1449, for 40 years, Samarkand continued to grow as a city of science and culture under the rule of Timur's grandson, Ulugh Beg. Besides the Gur-e-Amir Mausoleum built for Emperor Timur, the Ulugh Beg Madrasah and the Ulugh Beg Observatory are both important pieces of evidence.



The third article, 'Bukhara: Capital of the Bukhara Khanate,' explains that in the early 16th century, Muhammad Shaybani led the Uzbek people from the northern Central Asian steppes to overthrow the Timurid dynasty in Transoxiana. He established the Shaybanid dynasty, and in 1533, the dynasty moved its capital to Bukhara. The Shaybanid dynasty line ended in 1598, and power passed to the Janid Dynasty, which continued to rule from Bukhara until 1785. Later generations refer to the Shaybanid and Janid dynasties collectively as the Bukhara Khanate. Bukhara served as the capital of the Bukhara Khanate for 252 years, from 1533 to 1785, and many buildings from that time still stand today. The most abundant architecture comes from the reign of Abdullah Khan II, who ruled Bukhara from 1557 to 1598, which was also the peak of the Bukhara Khanate's power.



The fourth article, 'Tashkent: An Ancient City in Central Asia,' describes how Tashkent's population and size gradually recovered during the 14th to 16th centuries under the Timurid and Shaybanid dynasties, becoming a commercial and cultural hub along the Silk Road. Most of the historical buildings still found in Tashkent today were built during this period. During the chaos of the late Timurid dynasty, Tashkent briefly served as the capital of the Moghulistan Khanate, and the tomb of Yunus Khan still stands there today. Tashkent was incorporated into the Kazakh Khanate between the 17th and 18th centuries and became its capital in the 18th century. Today, Tashkent still preserves the tomb of a Kazakh hero.



Iran: Seljuk Empire, Qajar Dynasty

The first article, 'Rey: The Seljuk Ancient Capital Outside Tehran,' introduces the ancient city of Rey in the southern suburbs of Tehran. In the 9th century, the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine was built in Rey, making it an important religious site in Iran. In 1043, Tughril Beg, the founder of the Seljuk Empire, made Rey the capital of the empire and carried out large-scale reconstruction of the ancient city. Under the rule of the Seljuk Empire, Rey reached its peak, featuring a massive market and a very prosperous trade scene. Import and export trade, mainly in silk, connected the entire Eurasian continent. Rayy was the center for making painted pottery in Iran at the time, and Rayy-style painted pottery was an important Iranian handicraft during this period. After the Mongol army invaded Iran in 1220, Rayy became a ghost town and was finally abandoned in the 16th century.



The second article, 'Palaces of the Qajar Dynasty in Iran: Golestan Palace (Kākh-e Golestān),' introduces how Golestan Palace was first called the Tehran Citadel (Arg) and was originally built during the Persian Safavid Dynasty. After Agha Mohammad Khan (reigned 1789-1797) of the Qajar Dynasty made Tehran the capital, he officially rebuilt the Tehran Citadel into Golestan Palace. Between 1925 and 1945, Reza Shah (reigned 1925-1941) of the Pahlavi Dynasty ordered the demolition of most of the buildings in Golestan Palace for modern urban construction, and only a portion remains today.



Azerbaijan: Shirvanshah Dynasty

The article 'Historical Buildings in the Old City of Baku, Azerbaijan' introduces the Shirvanshah Dynasty, established in Azerbaijan by the descendants of an Arab general, which moved its capital to Baku in 1191. Baku remained the capital of the Shirvanshah Dynasty for over 300 years after that. Baku held a key position in ancient Eurasian trade. It served as a major hub in the trade network, where many merchants from India and Central Asia stopped to transfer goods. Today, the old city preserves the palace complex from the Shirvanshah dynasty, relatively intact ancient city walls, over a dozen ancient mosques built between the 11th and 18th centuries, four large caravanserais that witnessed ancient trade, and several traditional bathhouses. It is well worth a visit.



Turkey: Sultanate of Rum, Ottoman Empire

The first article, 'Konya: The Last Capital of the Seljuk Empire,' introduces the Seljuk Turks. They came from the Central Asian steppes, were deeply influenced by Persian culture, established the Sultanate of Rum in Asia Minor in 1077, and made Konya their capital in 1097. After the Mongols invaded Central Asia and Persia in the early 13th century, many Turks and Persians fled to Konya. Many were educated intellectuals or skilled craftsmen, including the famous poet Rumi. In 1243, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was defeated by the Mongol Empire and became a vassal state. However, Konya remained the capital of the sultanate until 1328. People lived in peace, and many existing Seljuk buildings were constructed during this period. After the Seljuk Empire fell, Konya became the final center of Seljuk 'Turko-Persian' culture. Seljuk culture is most famous for its tiles and stone carvings featuring human and animal figures, which are not found in later Turkish culture.



The second article, 'The Birth of the Ottoman Empire—Bursa,' explains how the Ottomans broke away from the Sultanate of Rum in the late 13th century and officially made Bursa their capital in 1326. From then on, the Ottomans used Bursa as a base to grow into the massive Ottoman Empire over the next hundred years. Bursa stands as the best witness to the birth of the Ottoman Empire. In 2014, UNESCO named the old city of Bursa a World Heritage site. Five of these heritage areas are located within Bursa. The builders of these five building complexes (külliye) were the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth rulers of the Ottoman dynasty. They cover the entire history of the Ottomans from the founding of the state to the conquest of Istanbul.



The third article, 'The Ottoman Capital in Europe—Edirne,' describes how the Ottomans captured Adrianople, an important Byzantine city in the Balkans, in 1369. They renamed it Edirne, and it became the Ottoman center in Europe. In 1413, Edirne officially became the capital of the Ottoman Empire, remaining so until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. After Prince Suleiman made Edirne his capital in 1403, he immediately began building the Old Mosque complex (Eski Cami) east of the old city. During the reign of Sultan Murad II, the second Muradiye complex and the third Three-Balcony Mosque complex (Üç Şerefeli Cami) were built in Edirne, along with a royal palace in the north.



The fourth article, 'The Palace of the Ottoman Empire—Topkapi Palace (Topkapi Saray),' introduces the palace. It sits on the site of the former Byzantine acropolis in the eastern part of Istanbul's old city, overlooking the Golden Horn. Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror ordered its construction in 1459. Topkapi Palace was first called the New Palace (Yeni Saray) to tell it apart from the Old Palace (Eski Saray), which was built between 1454 and 1459. Topkapi Palace went through several major expansions and renovations in the 16th century. Its importance faded after the 17th century, and by the 19th century, it only served as a treasury, library, and mint.



India: Delhi Sultanate, Sur Empire, Mughal Empire, Qutb Shahi dynasty, and Asaf Jahi dynasty.

The first article, "The First City of Delhi: A Minaret Reaching the Clouds," introduces the ancient city of Lal Kot. In 1193, the Ghurid dynasty from Iran and Afghanistan conquered Lal Kot, the first city of Delhi. The Ghurid dynasty soon split apart, and Qutb, the general left in charge of Delhi, established the Delhi Sultanate. Qutb tore down Hindu and Jain temples in the city to build a massive mosque. Later, the Qutb Mosque underwent two major expansions by succeeding sultans, Iltutmish in 1225 and Alauddin Khalji in 1310, making Lal Kot the political, religious, and cultural center of the Delhi Sultanate.



The second article, "The Second City of Delhi: A Turkic Fortress Against the Mongol Army," introduces the ancient city of Siri. In 1299, Duwa, the Khan of the Mongol Chagatai Khanate, sent his son Qutlugh Khwaja to lead an expedition against the Delhi Sultanate. Both sides suffered heavy losses in a decisive battle on the outskirts of Delhi, but the Chagatai army eventually retreated because their commander was seriously wounded. To defend against the next invasion by the Chagatai army, Sultan Alauddin Khalji decided to build the second city of Delhi, Siri, to the northeast of Delhi's first city, Lal Kot. In 1303, the Chagatai Khanate launched another major expedition and besieged the unfinished city of Siri. After two months of siege, the Chagatai army could not break through the city and chose to retreat. After the siege ended, Alauddin Khalji built a palace in Siri, making it the new capital of the Delhi Sultanate, replacing Lal Kot.



The third article, 'The Third City of Delhi: The Indestructible Beautiful Ruins,' introduces the ancient city of Tughlaqabad. After Alauddin died in 1316, the Delhi Sultanate fell into civil war. In 1320, General Ghazi-ud-Din Tughlaq became the Sultan. The following year, Ghazi built a massive city to the east of Lal Kot and Siri, which became the third city of Delhi, Tughlaqabad. Ghazi dreamed of building this fortress to be indestructible, strong enough to withstand the fiercest attacks from the Mongol army, but fate did not go as he wished. After the Delhi Sultanate fell, the nomadic Gurjar people took over the city. It became a wilderness, leaving behind only massive walls and ruins.



The fourth article, 'The Fourth City of Delhi: The Mysterious Sultan's Palace,' introduces the ancient city of Jahanpanah. In 1325, Muhammad bin Tughluq, the son of Ghazi ud-Din Tughluq, took the throne. To stop the Mongol army from invading, Muhammad connected Delhi's first city, Lal Kot, and its second city, Siri, with walls to build the fourth city of Delhi, Jahanpanah. The famous traveler Ibn Battuta lived in Delhi. He wrote in his travelogues that Lal Kot was the city center, Siri was the military camp, and Jahanpanah in the middle was the palace area.



The fifth article, 'The Fifth City of Delhi: Spirits and the Ashoka Pillar,' introduces the ancient city of Ferozabad. In 1351, Firoz Shah Tughluq, the cousin of Muhammad who built Delhi's fourth city, took the throne. He built a new capital in the north of Delhi. Today, the Feroz Shah Kotla fort, the heart of Ferozabad, is filled with palace ruins. The most famous is the Delhi-Topra Ashoka Pillar, which Firoz Shah found and brought back to Delhi during an expedition. Every Thursday afternoon, many people come to Feroz Shah Kotla. They place milk and grains against the walls and write their wishes on paper, asking the spirits (Jinn) in the castle to make their wishes come true.



The sixth chapter, The Sixth City of Delhi—The Birth of the Mughal Dynasty, introduces the ancient city of Din Panah. Din Panah was the first Mughal city in Delhi, built in 1533 by Humayun, the second ruler of the Mughal Empire. In 1540, Sher Shah defeated Humayun to establish the Sur Dynasty, and Din Panah became the capital of the Sur Dynasty. Humayun recaptured Din Panah in 1555, but he fell and died there the following year. The inner city walls of Din Panah, now known as the Old Fort (Purana Qila), are still well-preserved today. Inside the Old Fort are significant historical buildings, including the Sur Dynasty's royal mosque and the library where Humayun fell to his death. These are vital historical sites for the early Mughal and Sur dynasties.



The seventh chapter, The Seventh City of Delhi—The Mughal Capital, introduces the ancient city of Shahjahanabad. In 1628, the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan, took the throne. Under his rule, Mughal architectural aesthetics reached a new height, and this period is recognized as the golden age of Mughal architecture. Besides building the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi between 1639 and 1648, naming it Shahjahanabad after himself. Shah Jahan made Shahjahanabad the capital of the Mughal Empire, aiming to show the grandeur and power of the empire. Shahjahanabad is now known as Old Delhi and still keeps many historical sites and traditional neighborhoods. The most important site inside the city, the Red Fort, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2007.



The eighth article, 'An Ancient Muslim City on the Deccan Plateau: Golconda Fort,' introduces Golconda Fort on the Deccan Plateau in southern India. Because it had the only diamond mine in the world at the time, it was once the center of the global diamond trade. In 1518, Quli Qutb Mulk established the Qutb Shahi dynasty here, also known as the Golconda Sultanate. In 1687, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb captured Golconda Fort after an eight-month siege, and the site gradually fell into ruins. Today, many ruins of palaces, mosques, and gardens still remain here. Near Golconda Fort, you can find the tombs of the sultans from the Qutb Shahi dynasty. These tombs feature the classic style of Muslim architecture on the Deccan Plateau and are well worth seeing.



The ninth article, 'Hyderabad: An Ancient Muslim Capital in South India,' explains that in 1591, the Qutb Shahi dynasty moved its capital to the banks of the Musi River, east of the old city, to solve water shortages at Golconda Fort, establishing the city of Hyderabad. At that time, Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah invited several famous Persian architects to plan the city of Hyderabad and build landmarks like the Charminar gate and the Mecca Mosque. Hyderabad is also an important center for Shia Muslims in southern India, and it still preserves a hall built in 1594 to commemorate Imam Hussain.



The tenth article, 'The Asaf Jahi Dynasty: A Muslim State on the Deccan Plateau in South India,' explains that in 1687, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb captured Hyderabad after an eight-month siege and incorporated it into the Mughal Empire. In 1724, a high-ranking Mughal official named Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi set up his own government in Hyderabad. Because he used the highest honorific title of the Mughal Empire, Asaf Jahi, his line became known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. Hyderabad currently preserves the Chowmahalla Palace built by the Asaf Jahi dynasty, as well as the Paigah Tombs, which are famous for their exquisite plaster and marble carvings.



China: Moghulistan (East Chagatai Khanate), Yarkand Khanate

The first article, 'From Ili to Turpan—Two Royal Tombs of the East Chagatai Khanate,' introduces the early history of the East Chagatai Khanate through the tombs of its founding Khan, Tughluq Timur, and its third Khan, Khizr Khoja, located in Ili and Turpan. After the 14th century, conflicts deepened between the settled Chagatai Mongols in Transoxiana and those on the eastern steppes, eventually causing the Chagatai Khanate to split into eastern and western parts. In 1348, Tughluq Timur established the East Chagatai Khanate with Almalik as its capital. After taking the throne, Khan Tughluq Timur ordered all Chagatai Mongols in the East Chagatai Khanate to convert to Islam. He later unified the entire khanate through two western campaigns, but shortly after his death, the khanate fell into chaos again, and almost all of his descendants were killed. In 1389, Tughluq Timur's youngest son, Khizr Khoja, who had been in hiding for many years, took the throne. To escape the eastern campaign of Tamerlane the Great, Khizr Khoja moved the royal court east to Turpan, where he eventually died.



The second article, 'The Last Capital of the Chagatai—Yarkand,' introduces how Sultan Said Khan, a descendant of the East Chagatai royal family, established the Yarkand Khanate in 1514 with Yarkand as its capital, ruling southern Xinjiang until 1680. During the Yarkand Khanate's rule over southern Xinjiang, the Chagatai Mongols shifted from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one and blended into the Uyghur people. The Uyghur people also gradually developed into a modern ethnic group during this period. Culturally, the Yarkand Khanate era saw the creation of famous historical works like the Tarikh-i-Rashidi and the Chronicles, and the Twelve Muqam musical tradition was also finalized during this time. In the later years of the Yarkand Khanate, the Black Mountain faction of the Sufi Naqshbandi order took control of Yarkand city. After the Dzungar Khanate and the White Mountain faction occupied southern Xinjiang in 1680, the Black Mountain faction withdrew for a time, but they returned to rule Yarkand city for half a century between 1697 and 1755.



Malaysia: Malacca Sultanate

The book The First Sultanate in Southeast Asia: Malacca explains that Paramesvara, a prince of the Srivijaya kingdom, was named King of Malacca by the Yongle Emperor in 1406. Since most merchants trading with Malacca were Muslims, the rulers of Malacca increasingly saw the importance of Islam in trade. During the reign of the third ruler, Raja Tengah (1424-1444), all royal ministers converted to Islam, the king became a sultan, and the Malacca Sultanate became the first sultanate in Southeast Asia. In 1511, the Portuguese captured Malacca and destroyed all of the city's original palaces, cemeteries, and mosques. After the Dutch took over Malacca, they adopted a relatively tolerant religious policy and began building mosques with unique Malaccan features in the early 18th century.



Indonesia: Demak Sultanate, Banten Sultanate, Mataram Sultanate, Yogyakarta Sultanate, and Surakarta Sunanate.

The first article, 'The Earliest Sultanate on Java—Demak,' explains that Arab and Indian Muslim merchants began settling on the north coast of Java in the 15th century. The port of Demak became a powerful trading hub by importing spices from the Spice Islands and exporting rice to the Malacca Sultanate. Established between 1475 and 1568, the Demak Sultanate was the first sultanate on Java and played a major role in spreading Islam across the island. Today, the Great Mosque of Demak remains the most important early traditional mosque in Java, and the tomb of Sunan Kalijaga in the southeastern suburbs of Demak is also a significant Islamic holy site in Java.



The second article, 'The Jerusalem of Java—Kudus,' introduces how Sunan Kudus, one of the nine Islamic saints of Java (Wali Sanga), preached on the island during the 16th century. He blended Islamic culture with traditional Javanese culture and built the unique Al-Aqsa Mosque of Kudus. After he passed away, he was buried in the backyard of the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and his tomb became a famous Islamic holy site in Java.



The third article, 'Ocean City at the Western Tip of Java: Banten,' introduces how the Banten Sultanate rose to become a powerful maritime trading nation in the 16th century, controlling the pepper trade in Southeast Asia. The Banten Sultanate reached its peak in the 17th century and had intense conflicts with the Dutch East India Company. After the 18th century, the Banten Sultanate gradually came under the control of the Dutch East India Company and was finally incorporated into the Dutch East Indies in the 19th century. Today, the ancient city of Banten still preserves many ruins, and the Great Mosque of Banten, built in the 16th century, remains a famous religious site. two palaces of the Banten Sultanate, a Dutch fortress, and several tombs of the Banten Sultans are still preserved.



The fourth article, 'The Lost Ancient Capital of Java: Kotagede,' introduces the town of Kotagede in the southeastern suburbs of the ancient Javanese city of Yogyakarta. Its name means 'great city,' and it served as the first capital of the Mataram Sultanate between the 1570s and 1613. The Mataram Sultanate was the most powerful Islamic kingdom on Java in the 17th century. It later split into the two sultanates of Yogyakarta and Surakarta in 1755, which continue to exist today. Kota Gede still keeps the mosque and royal tombs of the Mataram Sultanate. The tomb guards work for both the royal families of Yogyakarta and Solo, making this a famous pilgrimage site for people from both cities.



The fifth article, 'Indonesia's Last Sultanate Territory—Yogyakarta,' explains how the Mataram Sultanate fell into power struggles in the late 17th century and finally split into the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate in 1755. After Indonesia gained independence, the Yogyakarta Sultanate became the Yogyakarta Special Region. The Sultan serves as the governor, making it the only region in Indonesia currently ruled by a Sultan. Today, Yogyakarta preserves the palace, water palace garden, and Great Mosque built by the Sultan in the 18th century. You can also eat royal palace food and enjoy court music there.



The sixth article, 'Central Java's Ancient City—Solo,' introduces how a Chinese-Javanese coalition destroyed the Mataram Sultanate capital of Kartasura in 1742. The last Sultan, Pakubuwono II, officially moved the capital to Solo (Surakarta) in 1745. In 1755, the Mataram Sultanate officially split into the Surakarta Sunanate and the Yogyakarta Sultanate, and Solo became the capital of the Surakarta Sunanate. Today, the Sunan still lives in most of the Solo palace, with only a part open as a museum. There is also the Solo Mosque built in 1768, where many Islamic ceremonies are held. In 1757, the former Mataram Sultanate rebel Raden Mas Said established the Mangkunegaran princely state near Solo. That same year, he built the Mangkunegara Palace in Solo, which is now open to the public as a tourist attraction.

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Reposted from the web

Summary: Melaka — First Southeast Asian Sultanate and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Malacca sits on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Before the 14th century, it was just a fishing village in the Srivijaya Kingdom of Sumatra. The account keeps its focus on Melaka Sultanate, Southeast Asian Islam, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Malacca sits on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Before the 14th century, it was just a fishing village in the Srivijaya Kingdom of Sumatra. In the late 14th century, the Majapahit Kingdom of Java conquered Srivijaya. Prince Paramesvara fled the capital of Palembang and eventually settled in Malacca in 1400.

To defend against threats from the Siamese Kingdom, Paramesvara reached out to the Ming Dynasty. In 1406, the Yongle Emperor officially named him the King of Malacca. Under Paramesvara’s leadership, Arab, Indian, and Persian merchants began trading in Malacca. The city grew into a vital port connecting East Asia, West Asia, and South Asia.

Since most merchants trading in Malacca were Muslims, the rulers of Malacca increasingly recognized the importance of Islam to their trade. During the reign of the third ruler, Raja Tengah (1424-1444), all royal ministers converted to Islam. The king changed his name to Muhammad Shah and took the title of Sultan, making the Malacca Sultanate the first sultanate in Southeast Asia.

The Malacca Sultanate began to flourish in the mid-to-late 15th century. It controlled the Strait of Malacca and became a trade hub for Southeast Asia, with many Persian and Arab merchants using the port to trade with the Ming Dynasty and other parts of East Asia. Around 1500, the Malacca Sultanate reached its peak. It was a marketplace for Indian pepper and cloth, Chinese porcelain and silk, and Indonesian spices.



The Malacca Sultanate at its peak in the late 15th century, from Wikipedia.

The tomb of the Malacca Sultanate warrior Hang Kasturi.

Hang Kasturi was one of the five great warriors of the Malacca Sultanate who lived during the reign of Sultan Mansur Shah (1456-1477). "Hang" is the highest honorary title given by the Sultan of Malacca to Malay warriors. The tomb of Hang Kasturi has a typical Indian style, which was likely built by later generations to commemorate him.









The fall of the Malacca Sultanate.

Until the end of the 15th century, spices in Europe were obtained through Venice, which got them from Arabia and India, while Arabia and India got them from Malacca. This process was complex and cumbersome. Driven by a desire for spices, the King of Portugal ordered his people to bypass the Cape of Good Hope to break the trade chain and establish a direct trade route with the East.

In 1509, a Portuguese representative arrived in Malacca with a letter from the King, hoping to establish direct trade with Malacca. Because the Portuguese had once used Catholics to fight against non-believers in India, the powerful Tamil Muslim faction in the Malacca court was very hostile toward them. The Malacca Sultanate eventually decided to arrest the Portuguese representatives. One representative escaped alone, while his companions were imprisoned.

In 1511, the Portuguese governor of India led 18 ships and 1,400 men to Malacca to negotiate the release of the prisoners with the Sultan. After three months of stalling, the Portuguese bribed the castle guards to open the main gate. The Portuguese army entered Malacca, and the last Sultan fled. His descendants later established the Johor Sultanate.

The Portuguese castle on the ruins of the Sultan's palace.

After occupying Malacca in 1511, the Portuguese built the A Famosa fort on the site of the original Malacca Sultanate palace. They planned to turn Malacca into a key trading port on the spice route between Europe and China, while also defending against attacks from the remaining forces of the Malacca Sultanate and the emerging Aceh Sultanate. A Famosa means "the famous" in Portuguese.

To build the castle, the Portuguese tore down Malacca's original palaces, graveyards, and every mosque. The original castle consisted of walls and four main towers. One was a four-story main building, while the other three served as an ammunition room, a captain's room, and officers' quarters. Most residents lived in the town inside the castle. As the population grew, the castle was expanded in 1586.



Malacca in 1780, with the castle on the right and the town on the left, from Wikipedia.







St. Paul's Church, built inside the castle in 1521, is the oldest church building in Southeast Asia.





The revival of the faith in the 18th century—traditional mosques in Malacca.

After the Portuguese occupied Malacca, they destroyed all the mosques of the Malacca Sultanate and promoted Catholicism in the city. However, the Portuguese were not successful. Catholicism did not have much influence in Malacca until the Dutch took over.

The Dutch adopted a more tolerant religious policy in Malacca, allowing Islam and Hinduism to spread. In 1728, the Dutch East India Company hired a Chinese convert to build a new mosque near the ruins of one destroyed by the Portuguese. This became the Kampung Hulu Mosque (Masjid Kampung Hulu). Kampong means village in the Malay language.





The mosque consists of a main prayer hall, a small ablution pool, and a minaret. The main hall uses the traditional Javanese Tajug multi-layered pyramid roof. The decoration at the very top is called a Mustoko or Memolo in Javanese. This roof design leaves space between the upper and middle layers for ventilation and light, which helps it handle the humid and rainy tropical climate.



Unlike traditional Javanese mosques built entirely of wood, the Kampung Hulu Mosque is made of brick and stone with plaster-coated roofs, showing the influence of Dutch colonial architecture.

The mosque's ceramic tiles and floor tiles were all imported from China, and the patterns on the windows also show Chinese influence.



The minbar inside the main hall features rich patterns and is very characteristic of Javanese style.





The minaret looks like a lighthouse, which is a first for the entire Malay Peninsula. Before this, mosques in the Malay Peninsula did not have a tradition of building minarets. On Java Island, the Great Mosque of Banten, built in 1632, was the first to have a lighthouse-style minaret designed and built by a Chinese man named Cek-ban-cut.



A traditional drum called a beduk (Beduk) sits above the mosque gate. Early traditional mosques in Southeast Asia used drums to call people to prayer. Today, many mosques still use drums to call people to prayer and signal the end of the daily fast during Jumu'ah and Ramadan.



Wudu pool







Tengkera Mosque (Masjid Tengkera) was the second mosque built in Malacca with funding from the Dutch East India Company. It was also completed in 1728, and its architectural style is similar to Kampung Kling Mosque, featuring the same traditional Javanese mosque roof.

Tengkera Mosque was originally a wooden structure made from timber that the Dutch East India Company bought from Kalimantan, Indonesia. After two renovations in 1890 and 1910, it was changed to the same brick and stone structure as Kampung Kling Mosque, and the roof was changed to glazed tiles.













The main prayer hall also has a beautifully carved minbar.





Water pool



Unlike the Kampung Hulu Mosque, the minaret of the Kampung Kling Mosque is modeled after a Chinese pagoda. This was the first of its kind on the Malay Peninsula and is now a major landmark in Malacca.





I bought a painting of the Kampung Kling Mosque from a Malay man on the mountain road next to St. Paul's Church.



The artist



Tomb of Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor

The tomb of Sultan Hussein Shah of Johor is in the backyard of the mosque. He played a key role in the founding of Singapore. After the Portuguese occupied Malacca in 1511, the Sultan of Malacca fled to Johor to continue his rule. In 1528, the last Sultan of Malacca passed away. His son, Alauddin Riayat Shah II, officially established the Johor Sultanate, viewing it as the legitimate continuation of the Malacca Sultanate.

Hussein Shah was born in 1776 and was the eldest son of Sultan Mahmud Shah III of Johor. When Mahmud Shah III passed away in 1812, Hussein Shah was not in the capital. His younger brother took the throne quickly with the support of government ministers, forcing Hussein Shah to flee to the Riau Islands.

In 1819, the British East India Company decided to build a new base in Southeast Asia. They found the exiled Hussein Shah and named him Sultan of Johor and Singapore in exchange for the right to establish a trading post in Singapore. Hussein Shah then came to Singapore and became a Sultan under British control.

In 1824, the British bought Singapore for 33,200 dollars, and Sultan Hussein Shah received 1,300 dollars every month. He held no real power in Singapore and served only as a symbolic figure.

Sultan Hussein Shah lived in Singapore until 1834, then moved to Malacca with his family. He passed away in 1835 and was buried at the Tengkera Mosque (Dongjiena qingzhensi).











Minaret ruins

Not far east of the Kampung Kling Mosque (Masjid Kampong Kling) stands a minaret built in the style of a Chinese pagoda. It bears the inscription 'Menara lama surau tengkera di bina pada tahun 1728,' which means 'old mosque tower built in 1728.' This is likely a remnant of another mosque funded by the Dutch East India Company in 1728.



The Kampung Kling Mosque (Masjid Kampong Kling) was built in 1748 by Indian Muslims who were doing business in Malacca. The name Kling comes from the local term for Indian people, 'Kalinga'. This area was a settlement for Indian Muslims in the 18th century. However, after the rubber industry boomed in Malacca from the 19th to the early 20th century, it became a residential area for Chinese people who came to work in the rubber industry.



The Kampung Kling Mosque (Masjid Kampong Kling) shares a similar style with the two mosques built earlier. The main prayer hall was originally a wooden structure, but it was rebuilt with brick and wood in 1872.





There are students visiting in the courtyard.



The Corinthian columns around and inside the main hall are a special feature of this mosque. The floor tiles were imported from China, and the hall has a Victorian-style ceiling and a beautifully carved pulpit (minbar).













The minaret is also built in the style of a Chinese pagoda.





Water pool



The 1940 flagpole.



Malaysian Architectural Museum (Muzium Seni Bina Malaysia).

At the foot of the A Famosa fortress, there is a series of museums converted from historic buildings, many of which are related to Islam. Let's start our tour at the Malaysian Architectural Museum.



Acehnese-style gravestones

During the era of the Malacca Sultanate, many royals and important figures were buried using Acehnese-style gravestones. Aceh is located in the northern part of Sumatra, Indonesia. From the early 16th century to the early 20th century, the Acehnese people established the highly influential Aceh Sultanate.

There are two types of Acehnese-style gravestones: the men's version is wider with two distinct corners, while the women's version is pyramid-shaped. The gravestones usually feature the name of the deceased, their birth and death dates, as well as Quranic verses and some poetry.







Traditional wooden doors in the style of the Malay East Coast

Wooden doors in the Malay East Coast style, carved with traditional Arabic calligraphy and floral patterns.





Malacca Islamic Museum (Muzium Islam Melaka)

The building housing the Malacca Islamic Museum was once the Malacca Islamic Council office. Its exact construction date is unknown, but it is estimated to be from the British colonial period in the 1850s. Some believe the lower level was built during the Dutch colonial period (1641-1824) and the upper level was added later by the British.

This building served as the Malacca Islamic Council office until 1990, after which it became the Malacca Islamic Museum.



Two sundials used to indicate prayer times at the Kampung Kling Mosque in Malacca. These sundials are usually used for the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) and the afternoon prayers. Because they require sunlight, they cannot be used for the dawn (Fajr) or night (Isha) prayers.







The prayer drum (beduk) used for the call to prayer at Kampung Kling Mosque is usually kept in the mosque corridor. The prayer drum was brought to Malacca from Java. It is typically made from tropical hardwoods like merbau or chegal, and it is played in a way similar to the Japanese taiko drum.

The prayer drum is played differently during the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah) than at other times. During Ramadan, the beduk drum signals the nightly breaking of the fast, and during Eid al-Fitr, people beat the beduk drum while reciting the takbir.



These two wooden tombstones are among the oldest Muslim grave markers found in Malacca, and they were moved from the Tengkera Mosque (Masjid Tengkera) to the museum in 2014.



These tombstones made of laterite stone were often used for Muslim graves during the Portuguese occupation (1511-1641), and they were also moved from the Tengkera Mosque to the museum in 2014.



This is a handwritten Quran manuscript by a haji in Malacca, copied in 1881. The dark text is the scripture, and the light text is the Indonesian translation.



A handwritten Quran manuscript from the museum collection.



A porcelain plate from the Dutch occupation period (1641-1824).



This is a typical traditional Malaysian hardwood carved pulpit (minbar), usually found to the right of the mihrab.



The Malay World and Islamic World Museum (Muzium Dunia Melayu Dunia Islam) in Malaysia.

The Malay World and Islamic World Museum in Malacca sits next to the A Famosa gate. The building was originally the office for a British rubber company built in 1910. Malacca saw a brief boom in the early 20th century thanks to the rubber industry. This era left behind many large homes belonging to Nanyang Chinese families, as well as this British-style building.



The museum houses handwritten scriptures and the traditional tools used to copy them.







A beduk drum from the Bukit Darat mosque in Malacca, dating back 70 or 80 years.



A traditional Malay pulpit (minbar).



When I visited, the museum was hosting a special exhibition from the South Sumatra Provincial Museum in Indonesia.



Headdresses and traditional musical instruments from the people of South Sumatra province.







This is a model of a traditional mosque from South Sumatra province. You can see that the mosques built in Malacca during the Dutch colonial period used this same three-tiered roof design.



Students resting and eating lunch in front of the museum, along with an auntie selling watermelon juice and coconut water.











Malacca Quran Museum (Muzium Al-quran Melaka).

The Malacca Quran Museum is next to the Malacca State Mosque. It opened in 2008 and holds some interesting collections.





Handwritten scriptures from the Aceh region in northwestern Sumatra.



Handwritten scriptures from Java.



A collection from a professor at Universiti Putra Malaysia.



Handwritten scriptures from the 18th-century Sultanate of Patani. The Sultanate of Patani was located on the border of present-day northern Malaysia and Thailand, and it served as a center for Islamic faith and scripture printing in northern Malaysia from the 15th to the 18th century.



This early 19th-century manuscript from Java is made from a local Javanese tree leaf called deluwang.



A manuscript from the Aceh region in northwestern Sumatra, dating between the 18th and 19th centuries.



An early 19th-century handwritten Quran from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula.



The most common colors used for manuscripts across Malaysia. These are Johor, Malacca, Sarawak, Selangor, and Pahang.





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Reposted from the web

Summary: Topkapi Palace — Ottoman History and Imperial Istanbul is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Topkapi Palace (Topkapi Saray) sits on the site of the old Byzantine acropolis in the eastern part of Istanbul's old city, overlooking the Golden Horn. The account keeps its focus on Topkapi Palace, Ottoman History, Istanbul while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Topkapi Palace (Topkapi Saray) sits on the site of the old Byzantine acropolis in the eastern part of Istanbul's old city, overlooking the Golden Horn. Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror ordered its construction in 1459. Topkapi Palace was first called the New Palace (Yeni Saray) to tell it apart from the Old Palace (Eski Saray), which was built between 1454 and 1459. Topkapi Palace went through several major expansions and renovations in the 16th century. Its importance faded after the 17th century, and by the 19th century, it only served as a treasury, library, and mint.

Imperial Gate (Bâb-ı Hümâyûn)

The Imperial Gate (Bâb-ı Hümâyûn) is the main entrance to Topkapi Palace. The Imperial Gate was built in 1478 and covered in marble during the 19th century. Above the central arch is gilded Ottoman calligraphy. Besides verses, it features the tughras of two sultans who renovated the gate: Mehmed the Conqueror (reigned 1444-46, 1451-81) and Abdülaziz I (reigned 1861-76). There are guard rooms on both sides of the arch. The gate opens every day at the time of the dawn namaz and closes after the night namaz.



Hagia Irene Church (Hagia Irene)

After passing through the Gate of the Emperors, you enter the First Courtyard (I. Avlu), also known as the Court of the Janissaries or the Parade Court. Ottoman Janissaries would line both sides of the path here to welcome important guests.

On the west side of the path in the First Courtyard, you can see the Hagia Irene Church (Hagia Irene), which was built during the Byzantine period. After the palace was completed, the church was turned into an armory, and today it serves as a concert hall.



Middle Gate (Orta Kapı)

The Middle Gate (Orta Kapı) sits between the First Courtyard and the Second Courtyard (II. Avlu). This gate has two octagonal towers, and inscriptions on the gate show it dates back to 1542. During the Ottoman era, only the Sultan and the Queen Mother could ride horses through the Middle Gate. Everyone else had to dismount here.



Palace Kitchens (Saray Mutfakları)

The eastern part of the second courtyard holds the Imperial Kitchens (Saray Mutfakları). They were built in the 15th century based on the kitchens at Edirne Palace and were expanded during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. After a fire destroyed the kitchens in 1574, the chief Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan led the reconstruction. He added the two rows of 20 chimneys you see today.

The kitchens consist of 10 domed buildings connected together. These include the Harem kitchen, the outer court kitchen (Birûn), and kitchens for drinks, sweets, and dairy, along with storage rooms and staff quarters. About 800 kitchen staff members prepared food for 4,000 people.













The kitchens now display a large collection of gold, silver, and porcelain from the Ottoman court, including many pieces of Chinese porcelain.















Tower of Justice (Adalet Kulesi)

On the west side of the third courtyard is the Imperial Council Chamber (Dîvân-ı Hümâyûn), where ministers held meetings. Further to the northwest is the Sultan's Harem. A tall Tower of Justice (Adalet Kulesi) stands between the council chamber and the Harem.

The Tower of Justice is the tallest building in Topkapi Palace, and you can see it clearly from the Bosphorus Strait. The Ottoman Sultan could discuss matters with the Imperial Council through a gold-framed window in the Tower of Justice. In 1527, the scholar Celalzade Mustafa Çelebi first mentioned this window: 'His Majesty... built a towering throne and a grand loggia above the outer council hall where the viziers sat, overlooking the council hall below through a curtained window.'

The Tower of Justice was first built by Mehmed the Conqueror, expanded by Suleiman the Magnificent between 1527 and 1529, and the top was rebuilt in 1825 to give it a neoclassical style.





Gate of Carriages (Arabalar Kapısı)

The entrance connecting the Second Courtyard to the Harem is called the Gate of Carriages (Arabalar Kapısı). Inside is the Domed Cupboard Room (Dolaplı Kubbe), built in 1587 during the reign of Murad III. It served as the finance office for the Harem. The cupboards held financial records, contracts, and foundation funds for the Harem, all managed by the Chief Harem Eunuch.





Fountain Hall (Şadirvanli Sofa)

The front hall leading into the Harem is called the Fountain Hall (Şadirvanli Sofa). It connects the Harem, the private gardens, the Harem Eunuch mosque, and the Tower of Justice, and it is guarded by the Harem eunuchs. The Ablution Fountain Hall was destroyed by fire in 1665 and rebuilt in 1666, decorated with 17th-century Kutahya tiles. The bench under the tiles was for guards to rest, and there is a mounting block nearby that the Sultan used to get on his horse. There used to be a fountain here, but it was later moved to the private chamber of Murad III.











Courtyard of the Black Eunuchs (Harem Ağaları Taşlığı)

One side of the Ablution Fountain Hall leads to the Courtyard of the Black Eunuchs (Harem Ağaları Taşlığı), which is the first courtyard of the Harem. On the left side of the courtyard are the dormitories for the black eunuchs, the Princes' School, and the rooms of the Chief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası), while the right side has the eunuchs' mosque and the rooms of the Harem supervisor. The buildings around the courtyard were destroyed by fire in 1665 and were later rebuilt.

On the left side of the courtyard, you can see valuable 17th to 18th-century tiles and gilded wainscoting, which feature the decrees of Sultan Mustafa IV (reigned 1807-08), Mahmud II (reigned 1808-39), and Abdulmejid I (reigned 1839-61).

The courtyard also has a beautiful fireplace decorated with 18th-century Kutahya tiles.



















Queen Mother's Apartments (Valide Sultan Dairesi)

Moving forward, you reach the Queen Mother's Apartments (Valide Sultan Dairesi), which served as the center of power for the entire harem. The Queen Mother's Apartments were destroyed in a harem fire in 1665, rebuilt between 1666 and 1668, and expanded throughout the 18th century. The rooms are covered in 17th-century blue and white, yellow and green, and Iznik tiles, while the upper levels feature 18th to 19th-century European paintings and various floral patterns.















Imperial Hall (Hünkâr Sofası)

The Imperial Hall (Hünkâr Sofası), also known as the Imperial Sofa or Throne Room, has the largest dome in the harem. The Imperial Hall served as the reception room and entertainment space for the Ottoman Sultan. The Sultan received his inner circle, guests, and family here. Various court events, including religious holidays and weddings, were held here.

The Imperial Hall was first built in the late 16th century and renovated into the Rococo style during the reign of Sultan Osman III (reigned 1754-1757). The walls of the hall are decorated with 18th-century blue and white Delftware tiles and Venetian glass mirrors, but the original classical paintings remain on the dome arches and pendentives.

The hall contains a gilded throne gifted to the Sultan by German Emperor Wilhelm II, with seats for the Queen Mother and the Sultan's wives located in the side galleries. The grandfather clock inside the hall was a gift from Queen Victoria of England.

















Private Chamber of Murad III (III. Murad Has Odası)

The Private Chamber of Murad III (III. Murad Has Odası) is one of the best-preserved and most complete buildings in the harem, built in 1578 by the chief Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan. The private chamber of Murad III has balanced proportions and a sensible design, showing the peak of Ottoman architecture in the late 16th century.

This private chamber has the second-largest dome in the harem, smaller only than the Imperial Hall. The room is lined with blue, white, and red Iznik tiles framed in orange, with a band of calligraphy tiles running across the middle of the walls. Inside, there is a two-story fountain; the sound of running water prevents eavesdropping and creates a relaxing atmosphere. The room also features a large fireplace decorated with colorful marble. Two luxurious 18th-century beds are also on display in the room.

Sultan Murad III reigned from 1574 to 1595. During his final years, he rarely left the palace and spent his days reading and resting in this private chamber.



















Harem Mosque (Harem Mescidi)

The Harem Mosque (Harem Mescidi) is in the northeast part of the Harem. It is where the concubines prayed and features beautiful tile decorations. This area once had fancy carpets, but now only the plain floor remains.



















Courtyard of the Favorites (Gözdeler/Mabeyn Taşlığı ve Dairesi)

The Courtyard of the Favorites (Gözdeler/Mabeyn Taşlığı ve Dairesi) is at the northernmost end of the Harem. It was expanded in the 18th century and overlooks the large pool and Boxwood Garden (Şimşirlik Bahçesi) behind the Harem. This is where the favorites (Gözdeler/İkballer) lived. If they became pregnant, they could be promoted to official consorts (Kadınefendi).









Golden Road (Altınyol)

The Golden Road (Altınyol) is a narrow passage along the main axis of the Harem. It connects the Courtyard of the Eunuchs, the Queen Mother's Courtyard, the consorts' courtyard, and the princes' chambers. You can reach the Harem exit through the Golden Road to continue touring other parts of the palace.





Mosque of the Eunuchs (Ağalar Camii)

The Servants' Mosque (Ağalar Camii) is the main mosque in the palace, dating back to the 15th-century reign of Mehmed the Conqueror. Ottoman sultans, servants (ağas), and guards all came here to perform namaz. After 1928, it became the Palace Library (Sarayı Kütüphanesi), housing tens of thousands of books and manuscripts in Turkish, Arabic, Persian, and Greek from the Ottoman Empire era.





Privy Chamber

The Privy Chamber was built in the 16th century by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan and served as the Sultan's office. The room holds precious sacred relics (Mukaddes emanetler), including the Prophet Muhammad's cloak, sword, bow, tooth, beard, saber, and handwritten letters. It also contains relics of the prophets Ibrahim, Musa, and Yusuf, as well as the four Rightly Guided Caliphs. Photography is not allowed inside.

In 1517, Ottoman Sultan Selim I (reigned 1512–1520) conquered the Mamluk Sultanate, and the last Abbasid Caliph, al-Mutawakkil III, handed the Prophet Muhammad's sword and cloak to the Ottoman Empire. According to tradition, every year on the 15th day of Ramadan, the Ottoman Sultan would lead the court to visit the sacred relics and kiss the Holy Cloak.





Inner Palace Library (Enderûn Kütüphanesi)

The Inner Palace Library (Enderûn Kütüphanesi), also called the Sultan Ahmed III Library (III. Ahmed Kütüphanesi), was built in 1719 by order of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703-1730). It is known as a model of 18th-century Ottoman architecture. The library holds over 3,500 precious manuscripts, which are currently kept in the Servant Mosque (Ağalar Camii).

















Balcony Mosque (Sofa Camii)

The Balcony Mosque, also called the Sofa Mosque (Sofa Camii), was built by order of Sultan Mahmud II (reigned 1808-1839) for the Sofa Ocağı military corps.



Erevan Pavilion (Revan Köşkü)

The Erevan Pavilion (Revan Köşkü) is known as the final model of classical Ottoman palace architecture. Its walls are decorated with colored marble and Iznik tiles. Ottoman Sultan Murad IV (reigned 1623-1640) built this structure in 1635-1636 to commemorate the Ottoman Empire's victory over the Persian Safavid dynasty and the capture of Erevan, which is the current capital of Armenia. The Yerevan Pavilion is called the Turban Room (Sark Odasi) because it was once the place where the Sultan's turbans were kept. In 1733, Sultan Mahmud I (reigned 1730-54) converted the Yerevan Pavilion into a private library for the Sultan.















Baghdad Pavilion (Bağdat Köşkü)

The Baghdad Pavilion (Bağdat Köşkü) is also known as the final example of classic Ottoman palace architecture. Sultan Murad IV built it in 1638 to celebrate the Ottoman Empire's victory over the Persian Safavid dynasty and the capture of Baghdad. The Baghdad Pavilion has a similar shape to the Yerevan Pavilion. It is a prime example of Ottoman hall architecture and features high-level craftsmanship. The marble panels in the porch have a Cairo Mamluk style, and the window frames are decorated with mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell. The charcoal brazier (Mangal) in the center room was a gift from King Louis XIV of France (reigned 1643-1715). Starting in the mid-18th century, this place was also used as the Sultan's private library.



















Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odası)

The Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odası) was built in 1640 by the Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim (reigned 1640-1648) as a place for Ottoman princes to have their circumcisions. The inside and outside of the Circumcision Room are decorated with rare tiles collected from many different places. The most precious ones are the blue and white tiles made in 1529, which were used to decorate the palace during the time of Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520-1566).











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Reposted from the web

Summary: Beijing Halal History: Muslim Shops West of Caishikou Road is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Caishikou was once the main wholesale vegetable market in Beijing. Guang'anmen Street, located west of Caishikou, was lined with shops and very busy, and many of these businesses were run by Hui Muslims. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Halal Food, Caishikou, Hui Muslims while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Caishikou was once the main wholesale vegetable market in Beijing. Guang'anmen Street, located west of Caishikou, was lined with shops and very busy, and many of these businesses were run by Hui Muslims.

The book "Xuanwu History and Culture Volume 5" includes an article by Liu Xiangbo called "Memories of Shops Along the Street West of Caishikou." The author wrote this in 1993, just before the road widening project on Guang'anmen Inner Street. I copied the parts about Hui Muslims from the text to use as reference material. For the locations of the shops mentioned in the text, you can refer to the 1935 map of the outer four districts of Beiping.



North side of the road west of Caishikou:

1. Sha's Shop. Run by a Hui Muslim family named Sha. It had no storefront, but was set back with a gate large enough for a cart to enter. There are two small rooms built over the gate, with a tinware shop located above them. Like Yaojia Inn on the west side of the entrance to Beibanjie Hutong, Shajiadian mostly houses rural peddlers who come into the city to sell vegetables and fruit. A descendant of the Sha family lives in the first house on the north side of the west entrance of Hongluochang, on the east side of Lanman Hutong.

2. Laiba's tripe (baodu). A two-room wine shop (jiugang) called Taiyuan has a Hui Muslim man named Laiba who runs a permanent stall selling tripe (baodu) right in front.

[Living Forest (Huoshuyun)]

Zhengxingde Tea House. The words 'Tianjin Branch' are written in front of the door. This is a tea shop run by Hui Muslims. Most of the customers are also Hui Muslims. There are not many houses behind the shop, and the village goods are kept in a separate warehouse (duifang) on the east side of the inner road of Lanman Hutong. For many years, Zhengxingde used white paper with red woodblock-printed labels to package its tea.

[Sesame Shop Alley (Zhima Dian Hutong)]

Mutton stall (yangrou chuangzi). It has two storefronts, but I do not remember the name. This is a long-standing beef and mutton shop run by Hui Muslims. Near the entrance on the east side sits a meat cutting table (rouchuangzi). It is scrubbed so clean that the white wood grain shows through. Beef and lamb are laid out on the table, and more meat hangs from copper hooks on a horizontal bar above it. In front of the meat table sits a long, unpainted wooden bench about a foot wide. It is not for sitting. Customers use it to hold their shopping baskets and other belongings. Customers are not allowed to put their things on the meat table to keep it clean and halal. People say this rule was agreed upon by Hui Muslims and Han residents to avoid conflicts over their different daily habits.

The lamb shop also sells cooked items like soy-sauce beef (jiang niurou), roasted lamb (shao yangrou), and beef and lamb offal (niuyang zasui). Especially in summer, the shop always has a pot of meat broth simmering on the stove. When people buy offal, they often bring a green glazed jar. The shopkeeper gives them half a jar of broth for free. It is light and not greasy, making it a cheap and delicious way to dress noodles in the summer.

Guang'anmen Vegetable Market. Just west of Dafeng Hao, there is a Hui Muslim tofu pudding (doufunao) stall and a Hui Muslim sticky rice cake (qiegao) stall right at the entrance. They have been there for a long time.

Dachangheng Kerosene Shop. The shop had two storefronts and was three rooms deep. It was opened by Liu Fazeng, a Hui Muslim from Baigou River in Xincheng, Hebei Province. Electric lights only reached every street and alley in Beijing after the founding of the People's Republic of China. In the past, most homes and shops used kerosene lamps, so they consumed a lot of kerosene. Back then, there was no domestic oil, so it was called foreign oil (yangyou). Naturally, Dachangheng sold foreign oil from Texaco and Shell.

Besides kerosene, Dachangheng also sold kerosene lamps, lamp wicks (dengnian), and matches (which Beijingers call qudeng or yanghuo). They also sold brown sugar, white sugar, rock sugar, and cigarettes, and business was very good. Wealthy families bought several pounds or more of kerosene at a time to use slowly, while poor citizens mostly bought only what they needed for the day. Every evening, families would take out their kerosene lamps, use rough paper (maotouzhi) to wipe the soot off the glass lamp shades (dengzhao), and check if there was enough oil for the night. If not, they would carry their lamp or a glass bottle to the kerosene shop. At the kerosene shop, kerosene was stored in large drums. The shopkeeper used a metal scoop (tizi)—which looked like a wine dipper but was welded from tinplate instead of bamboo—to measure the amount and pour it through a funnel into a kerosene lamp or bottle. That is why Beijingers usually call buying kerosene 'hitting' (da) kerosene.

Outer Fourth District Police Station

Sesame flatbread (shaobing) shop. The shop had a one-room storefront that went three rooms deep. I cannot remember its name, which ended in 'zhai'. In the early morning, they mainly sold sesame flatbread (shaobing), fried dough twists (mahua), crispy fried rings (jiaoquan), and soy milk (doujiang). They also made honey-glazed fried dough twists (mi mahua), brown sugar flatbread (tang huoshao), steamed buns (dun bobo), triangular sugar cakes (tang sanjiao), and date cakes (zaobing). During the Dragon Boat Festival, they wrapped sticky rice dumplings (zongzi), and for the Spring Festival, they made seasonal foods like New Year rice cakes (niangao) to sell. In the afternoon, they only baked a few batches of fresh sesame flatbread (shaobing) and stopped making fried items. Two Hui Muslim brothers ran the shop and had one or two assistants. One assistant, surnamed Tie, had worked there for many years and opened his own sesame flatbread (shaobing) shop nearby after liberation. Later, I went into the Nanlaishun snack shop.

Yuelai Inn. It was called an inn, but it had long stopped being a place for traveling merchants to stay and was instead filled with all kinds of long-term residents. The courtyard was huge with over a hundred rooms. The landlord was a Hui Muslim named Ma, whom everyone called Fifth Master Ma. At the north end of the courtyard, he used a decorative wall to section off a small yard. He left a moon gate (yue liang men) in the wall and kept many pigeons there. There was a back door in the northeast corner of the courtyard that led to Guang'an Xili. Inside the door was a large pit where children could jump in and splash around. It was filled with wastewater from the bean sprout workshop in the courtyard where they washed beans to grow sprouts. The courtyard had a vegetable shop, a mat shop, a straw bag shop, and street vendors selling various things like roasted sweet potatoes (kao baishu).

[Juguo Hutong]

Magpie Alley (Xique Hutong)

Liu Siba's hay shop. Guang'an Alley used to be called Jar Alley (Guan'er Hutong), and it was the site of the daily morning market. On the west side of the entrance, there is a hay shop run by a Hui Muslim named Liu Siba. Liu is from the same family as the owners of the Roast Meat Liu (Kaorou Liu) shop east of Hufang Bridge. The shop sold hay for livestock, and they hired several workers to spend all day cutting the grass with a fodder cutter. It is the only hay shop near Caishikou that I remember seeing in my childhood.

South of the road, west of Caishikou:

Nanlaishun Snack Shop. In the late 1950s, the Guixinzhai pastry shop, Deyigong stationery store, and a popsicle shop at the entrance of Chengxiang Alley were torn down. The Xuanwu District Catering Management Office built the Nanlaishun Snack Shop there, which could seat over a hundred people. It gathered all kinds of snacks favored by Beijing's Hui Muslims: sesame flatbread (shaobing), brown sugar flatbread (tanghuoshao), crispy fried rings (jiaoquan), thin crispy crackers (baocui), fried dough cakes (youbing), sugar cakes (tangbing), honey twists (mimahua), sugar twists (tangmahua), fried rice cakes (zhagao), sticky rice cakes (qiegao), steamed sponge cakes (fenggao), date cakes (zaobing), large flatbreads (dabing), stuffed pies (xianbing), red bean porridge (xiaodouzhou), sweet porridge (tianzhou), millet flour porridge (miancha), and tofu pudding (doufunao). You could find almost every snack that ever existed in Beijing here. You could buy them to take home or sit inside the shop to eat. It did not cost much, and if you picked different items, you could eat there for ten days or half a month without ever repeating a dish. Morning, noon, and night, the shop was always bustling and packed with people. Later, they added a private dining area to serve stir-fried dishes, hot pot (shuanrou), and to host full banquet tables. The waiter, Master Ji, lived in Huashi outside Chongwen Gate. He had worked in this industry his whole life, starting early on at Yimuyuan in Xidan, and knew the dishes of Beijing's Hui Muslim restaurants like the back of his hand. He was warm when greeting guests and knew how to read and care for a customer's needs. If you wanted to save trouble and avoid waste, you could tell him your budget, and he would arrange the meal so you spent little but ate very well. Even though he served several tables by himself, he stayed focused and took great care of every guest until they finished their meal and walked out the door. After the Turpan Restaurant (Tulufan Canting) opened, Master Ji was hired as the front-of-house manager.

A pigment shop. It was a small storefront, also called an alkali shop (jianpu), and it looked very plain. During the Japanese occupation, it briefly became an electrical supply store selling light bulbs, wires, porcelain cleats, porcelain insulators, fuses, electrical tape, and other electrical materials. The owner was a Hui Muslim who always rode a nice bicycle with a friction-drive generator (modiangun) to get around. Later, he closed this shop and opened another electrical supply store on the west side of Xizhuan Hutong. Besides selling electrical parts, the store also took on jobs like installing electric lights.

Junwang Sesame Flatbread Shop (Junwang Shaobing Pu). The shopkeeper is young but wears a handsome beard in the tradition of Hui Muslims, which is likely how he earned the nickname Handsome Wang (Jun Wang). He sells snacks like sesame flatbread (shaobing) and twisted fried dough (mahua tanghuoshao). The fried crispy ring (zha jiaoquan) is his most famous item, which is crunchy and not greasy when tucked into a sesame flatbread or wrapped in a thin pancake (jianbing). The shop also grinds its own soy milk. The shop is often full of customers early in the morning.

Pass-through door (chuantang men)

Shihong Steamed Bun Shop is a Hui Muslim shop. Outside the door, a steamer sits on a stove made from a large oil drum, puffing out steam all day long. A young apprentice stands in front of the door, shouting at the top of his lungs, "Fresh steamed buns are hot!" His calls echo back and forth with the young clerk at Yongfahu Steamed Bun Shop across the street, adding a lively atmosphere to the street. The steamed buns (baozi) at the Hui Muslim bun shop are wrapped differently than those made by Han Chinese, with fewer pleats on top. They are mostly filled with lamb and chives. The worker fills a steamer basket and adds it to the bottom of the stack in the steamer. A wooden, cylindrical cover sits over all the baskets, so fresh buns are always ready.

Shihong sold other flour-based foods besides buns. It closed around the time of the Liberation, though some say it moved to the east gate of Liulichang. Later, a shop making large and small steelyard scales opened here. The owner of Shihong was reportedly a Hui Muslim from Dezhou, Shandong.

Gas welding shop. It was a storefront run by a Hui Muslim named Ma Dewen, who used to sell sticky rice cake (qiegao) in front of the Guang'an vegetable market. In the early days after Liberation, he changed his trade to take on all kinds of gas welding work here, and business was quite good. Ma was also a neighborhood activist in the 1950s.

Lanman Hutong

Qinghuazhai. Near Caishikou, the only pastry shop for Hui Muslims was Qinghuazhai, located on the west side of the road just inside the entrance of Lanman Hutong, and it was opened by a Hui Muslim named Ma Lanting. The shop was gone by about the 1960s, but the name Qinghuazhai Pastry Factory is still kept today.

Hui Muslim beef and mutton shop. It had two storefronts with a blue tent with white characters set up in front, and the owner and the shop assistants were all from Dezhou, Shandong. It operates much like the lamb shop on the north side of the road, so I will not repeat the details here. They also sell spiced beef (jiang niurou) and lamb offal soup (yangzasui), and serve free meat broth.

Xizhuan Alley

Electrical supply store. This is a single-frontage shop run by Hui Muslims. They originally had an electrical store on the south side of Xuanwai Street, right across from Caishikou, before moving here. Two brothers run the shop without any hired help. Besides selling electrical parts, they also go out to install and repair lights.

Large crowded courtyard (dazayuan). This is also a long, narrow courtyard (tongziyuan) with a path in the middle. Low, gray-roofed bungalows are built against the east and west walls, and most of the residents are poor city dwellers. The Wang family set up a snack stall right in front of Yuhua Middle School (now Guang'an Middle School) across the street. They sold everything you could eat or drink, including sugar-coated beans (tangdou), melons and fruits, cigarettes, toilet paper, chilled soda, sour plum drink (suanmeitang), and shaved ice dessert (xuehualao). Later, they added glass and picture frames to their stock, cutting glass to order at the stall and even going out to install window and door glass for construction jobs. The business supported a family of seven or eight people. Old Man Wang was a devout Hui Muslim who set up his stall at daybreak and packed up at ten at night, working hard through wind and sun, but during Ramadan, he would not eat or drink a drop until he saw the stars and the moon. Collapse Read »

Reposted from the web

Summary: Ottoman Architecture Guide: Mimar Sinan — Early Mosques and Imperial Works is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Mimar Sinan (1488/1490-1588) is known as the great architect of the Ottoman Empire, and people often compare him to Michelangelo. The account keeps its focus on Mimar Sinan, Ottoman Architecture, Istanbul Mosques while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Mimar Sinan (1488/1490-1588) is known as the great architect of the Ottoman Empire, and people often compare him to Michelangelo. In the autumn of 2018, I visited dozens of Mimar Sinan's works in Istanbul, Edirne, and Konya, Turkey, which helped me feel closer to him. Sinan's work reflects that era and shows the spirit of the Ottoman Empire at its peak. By learning about Sinan's work, we can also better understand the 16th-century Ottoman Empire.

Mimar Sinan was an officer and military engineer in his youth and middle age, and he did not become the chief Ottoman architect until he was 50. During his nearly 50-year career as an architect, Sinan led top building teams to construct 476 buildings for the Ottoman Empire, 196 of which still stand today.

Sinan's career can be roughly divided into three periods: the growth period, the mature period, and the peak period. These three periods can be summarized by three specific buildings. Built in 1548, the Prince Mosque (Şehzade Camii) was the first large mosque designed by Sinan and stands as an early masterpiece. The Suleymaniye Mosque (Süleymaniye Camii), completed in 1557, became a landmark for all of Istanbul. The Selimiye Mosque (Selimiye Camii), built in Edirne in 1574, represents the absolute peak of Sinan's architectural skill.

Next, I will introduce the first stage of Sinan's career: his growth period. Starting with the first building complex Sinan constructed in Istanbul in 1539, you can see him move from following traditional Ottoman designs to gradually innovating and developing his own unique style. The nine works I am sharing below are all located in Istanbul. If you are traveling to Istanbul, you have the chance to visit them in person.

Table of Contents

1. Hurrem Sultan Complex: 1539, 1540, 1550

2. Mihrimah Sultan Complex: 1543-1548

3. Sehzade Complex: 1543-1548

4. Hüsrev Pasha Tomb: 1545

5. Yavuz Sultan Selim Madrasa: 1549

6. Rüstem Pasha Madrasa: 1550

7. Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosque: 1551

8. Sinan Pasha Complex: 1555

9. Hurrem Sultan Bathhouse: 1556

1. Hurrem Sultan Complex: 1539, 1540, 1550

The Haseki Hürrem Sultan Complex (Haseki Hürrem Sultan Külliyesi) is in the southwest of Istanbul's old city. Built in 1539, it was the first complex Mimar Sinan designed after he became the royal architect.

Suleiman the Magnificent's wife, Haseki Hürrem Sultan, commissioned the complex. Haseki Hürrem Sultan, also known as Roxelana, was the first empress in Ottoman history to hold the title of Haseki Sultan, or the Sultan's favorite. She is also known as the most powerful and controversial woman in Ottoman history.

After becoming empress, Haseki Hürrem Sultan began building a series of public structures, starting with this royal complex. The complex includes a Friday mosque, a public kitchen (Imaret), a religious school (madrasa), an elementary school (Mektep), and a hospital (Darüssifa). The mosque was finished in 1539, the school and kitchen were finished the following year, and the hospital was not completed until 1550. When designing the complex, Sinan arranged the different buildings at various angles, leaving only narrow paths or gaps between them. This layout creates a rich perspective effect that almost never appeared in his later works.



The layout of the building complex is based on a map from the book Sinan's Istanbul.

The mosque (1539) sits at the southernmost part of the complex, separated from the rest by a narrow alley. The mosque was originally a simple, traditional design with one dome and one minaret, built with alternating layers of brick and stone. Its porch has six marble columns supporting five small domes. The mosque was expanded in 1612, growing from one dome to two and doubling in size. The mosque has no tiles, and the current painted decorations were added later. During this period, Sinan had not yet started to innovate in mosque architecture.

The madrasa (1540) is directly across from the mosque, featuring sixteen student rooms and a large lecture hall arranged in a rectangle.

The primary school (1540) is known as the most beautiful one built by Mimar Sinan.

The hospital (1550) is in the far north and was built by Hurrem Sultan specifically for women. The hospital courtyard is octagonal, with rooms on three sides and windows facing the street on the fourth. The two arched gateways (iwan) at the corners of the octagonal courtyard and the dome show how Sinan would later develop his use of arches and domes.



Unfortunately, the mosque was under renovation and closed when I visited.



The dome of the mosque.



The front porch of the mosque.



A diagram of the mosque published by Cornelius Gurlitt in 1912, showing the layout before the expansion on the left and after on the right.



Public kitchen



A diagram of a public kitchen published by Cornelius Gurlitt in 1912

2. Mihrimah Sultan Complex: 1543-1548

The Mihrimah Sultan Complex (Mihrimah Sultan Külliyesi) sits next to the Üsküdar pier on the east bank of the Bosphorus. Built between 1543 and 1548, it is one of the most famous landmarks in the Üsküdar area and the second complex by Mimar Sinan still standing in Istanbul.

The complex was commissioned in 1543 by Mihrimah Sultan, the daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent and Hurrem Sultan. She was the wife of the Grand Vizier Rüstem Pasha and is known as the most powerful princess in Ottoman history.

The entire complex is cleverly built on a slope that stretches to the coast. It includes a mosque, a religious school (madrasa), a guesthouse, a dining hall (imaret), an elementary school, and several tombs added later. The guesthouse and dining hall were destroyed by fire in 1772.



The layout of the building complex is based on a map from the book Sinan's Istanbul.



On the left is the Mihrimah Sultan Complex.

This mosque is the first semi-domed mosque designed by Mimar Sinan. The mosque consists of one main dome and three semi-domes. This shape expands the interior space, so you feel like you are under a dome as soon as you enter the main hall. Although the mosque itself is not very deep, this design makes the space feel much larger. Mimar Sinan also added a T-shaped canopy in front of the porch to soften the look of the entrance.



A diagram of the mosque published by Cornelius Gurlitt in 1912.







The canopy in front of the porch.



The main gate.



The main dome and the semi-domes.



Main dome



Half-dome



The mihrab and minbar under the half-dome



Mihrab



Minbar

The madrasa consists of sixteen student dorms and a large lecture hall arranged in a rectangle. It is now a hospital, and the integrity of this cultural heritage site has been damaged.



The passage from the mosque to the madrasa



Exterior of the madrasa



Inside the madrasa.

The primary school consists of two domed buildings.



3. Sehzade Complex: 1543-1548

The Prince Complex (Şehzade Külliye) sits on the third hill of Istanbul's old city. Built between 1543 and 1548, it is known as the most important early work by Mimar Sinan and his first masterpiece.

Suleiman the Magnificent built the complex to honor his beloved son, Prince Mehmed (Şehzade Mehmed), who died young. Prince Mehmed was the son of Suleiman the Magnificent and Hurrem Sultan. He was favored from a young age and was the most likely heir, but he sadly died of smallpox in 1543 (some say he was murdered). Suleiman the Magnificent was heartbroken after the prince died. Traditionally, princes were buried in Bursa, but the Sultan decided to commission Mimar Sinan to build a tomb for the prince in Istanbul and add a complex to match it.

The Prince Complex (Sehzade Mosque complex) was the first project Mimar Sinan built under the direct order of Suleiman the Magnificent. It was his most ambitious early work, featuring a much grander scale and more decorations than his previous designs.

The complex includes a mosque, five tombs, a madrasa (religious school), a guest house, a caravanserai (traveler's inn), a public kitchen, and a primary school. These buildings are spread out freely across the flat ground without any forced symmetry. The mosque is not physically connected to the other buildings, which are scattered throughout the gardens or along the streets surrounding the mosque.



The layout of the building complex is based on a map from the book Sinan's Istanbul.

The mosque (built between 1543 and 1548) was the second semi-domed mosque designed by Mimar Sinan, featuring one main dome supported by four semi-domes. This design improved upon his earlier work at the Mihrimah Sultan Mosque, which had three semi-domes, and offered a new take on older designs like the Fatih Mosque (1471) and the Bayezid II Mosque (1506). This layout separates the four pillars that support the central dome, creating a more striking visual effect.

The interior of the mosque is a square laid out along a central vertical axis, and you can immediately feel the dominance of the central dome when you walk in.

The porticos on the side walls of the mosque are also a bold innovation, which points toward the future development of Ottoman mosques. This design softens the building's flanks and hides the buttresses, helping the facade blend in more perfectly.

The design of the Prince Mosque has gradually moved away from the traditional Ottoman mosque model and started to head toward Sinan's own unique style.



A diagram of the mosque published by Cornelius Gurlitt in 1912.



The mosque at noon



The mosque at sunset



You can see two minarets, the main dome, and the semi-domes.



The entrance to the mosque courtyard.



The courtyard gate.



Looking at the main prayer hall of the mosque from the courtyard.



Looking at the main prayer hall of the mosque from the courtyard.



The courtyard.



The main dome and the semi-domes.







Mihrab

The Tomb of Prince Muhammad (1543) is southeast of the mosque. It is an octagonal structure with Persian inscriptions at the entrance and Cuerda Seca tiles inside.







The tomb of Grand Vizier Rustem Pasha (1560) sits south of the tomb of Prince Mehmed and was also designed by Mimar Sinan. Rustem Pasha was the husband of Mihrimah Sultan and the son-in-law of Suleiman the Magnificent. Later generations remember him as one of the most accomplished Grand Viziers of the Ottoman Empire.





The madrasa (1546) is located outside the garden on the north side of the mosque. It is a rectangular building surrounded by a gallery, with 21 student rooms and one large lecture hall on three sides. The fountain in the middle of the courtyard still keeps its Seljuk-era tomb structure (kumbet) from the 11th to 13th centuries.



Madrasa gate



Madrasa inner courtyard



Madrasa inner courtyard



The lecture hall of the madrasa.

The public kitchen (imaret) built between 1543 and 1548 sits across the street east of the mosque. It has two buildings, each with six domes, and a courtyard in the middle.



The primary school is nearby, and the public kitchen is in the distance.



The main gate of the public kitchen.



Inside the courtyard of the public kitchen.

4. Hüsrev Pasha Tomb: 1545

The octagonal tomb of Hüsrev Paşa is in the west of Istanbul. It is known as one of the most beautiful tombs built by Mimar Sinan.

Hüsrev Paşa was a grand vizier of the Ottoman Empire. People called him 'Hüsrev the Mad' because he had a bad temper. Hüsrev Pasha was born in Bosnia in 1495 and came from the famous Sokollu family. He became the governor of Egypt in 1535 and the Second Vizier in 1538. In 1544, Hüsrev Pasha lost the race for Grand Vizier to Rüstem Paşa. He fell ill and died shortly after, and Mimar Sinan built his tomb.





5. Yavuz Sultan Selim Madrasa: 1549

The Yavuz Sultan Selim Madrasa is located in the west of Istanbul. Suleiman the Magnificent commissioned Mimar Sinan to build it, and it is named after the Sultan's father, Sultan Selim I. The madrasa consists of 20 student rooms on three sides and one large lecture hall. In 1563, the lecture hall was turned into a prayer hall and a minaret was added. The minaret is now destroyed, and the madrasa has become a hospital.



From the book Sinan's Istanbul.













6. Rüstem Pasha Madrasa: 1550

The Rustem Pasha Madrasa (Rüstem Paşa Medrese) was built in 1550, just northeast of the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul. Mimar Sinan designed this madrasa as a new take on the famous Buyuk Aga Madrasa (Büyük Ağa Medrese) built in Amasya in 1488. The Buyuk Aga Madrasa was the first octagonal madrasa in Turkey. Mimar Sinan kept the octagonal courtyard inside but changed the outside to a rectangle, which helped advance Ottoman madrasa architecture.



From the book Sinan's Istanbul.













7. Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosque: 1551

The Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosque (Hadım İbrahim Paşa Camii) sits inside the Silivrikapi gate in the southwest of Istanbul's old city. It was built in 1551 by Mimar Sinan for the Vizier Ibrahim Pasha, who was known as the Eunuch (Hadım).

Ibrahim Pasha started as the chief eunuch in the court of Suleiman the Magnificent. He rose steadily to become the Second Vizier and was one of the few eunuchs in the Ottoman Empire to earn such a high reputation.

In 1562, Ibrahim Pasha set up a charitable endowment (Waqf) managed by white eunuchs from the Ottoman court to support the operations of several schools and mosques. These schools and mosques were located inside the western walls of Istanbul in a less populated area mainly inhabited by Christians. The Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosque is the most important one among them.

This mosque represents the first phase of Mimar Sinan's single-dome mosque designs. During this phase, Sinan used eight buttresses to support the main dome. This design hinted at the octagonal dome style he would use in his next phase. This mosque also looks very similar to the Bali Pasha Mosque in Istanbul, which was built in 1504. Sinan likely used that building as a reference for his design.



From the book Sinan's Istanbul.



The pagoda (bangta) was rebuilt in 1763.



Inside the main hall, Sinan used a stepped structure hidden from the outside to create a smooth transition from the walls to the dome.

The interior is decorated with Iznik tile panels. The most prominent ones are above the mihrab, featuring Thuluth calligraphy in cobalt blue, turquoise, and dark olive green.









8. Sinan Pasha Complex: 1555

The Sinan Pasha Complex (Sinan Paşa Külliyesi) is in the Beşiktaş district of northern Istanbul. Built in 1555, it included a mosque, a madrasa, and a bathhouse, though the bathhouse was torn down in 1957.

Sinan Pasha commissioned the complex. He was the brother of the Ottoman Grand Vizier Rustem Pasha, served as the Ottoman naval commander from 1550 to 1553, and died in Istanbul at the end of 1553. Shortly before he died, Sinan Pasha asked Mimar Sinan to build this complex for him and expressed his wish to be buried there. Because Sinan Pasha died suddenly, construction did not start until 1554 and was finished in 1555.

This mosque is Mimar Sinan's reinterpretation of the famous Three-Balcony Mosque (Üç Şerefeli Camii) in Edirne, so it is often called the smaller version of that mosque. The main prayer hall of the mosque consists of one large dome and four smaller domes. In 1749, the porch with five small domes was incorporated into the main prayer hall.

This madrasa was the first time Mimar Sinan tried to place a madrasa opposite a mosque to form a courtyard, while also removing the large lecture hall.





mosque



courtyard



madrasa corridor



large dome



small dome



The side of the mosque.



Mihrab



The mihrab and minbar.

9. Hurrem Sultan Bathhouse: 1556

The Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamamı is located south of the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. Built in 1556, it was one of many public charity buildings commissioned by Queen Hürrem, the wife of Suleiman the Magnificent, and designed by Mimar Sinan. It is still open to the public today.

The bathhouse was built on the site of the famous Byzantine Baths of Zeuxippus. Although the building design follows early Ottoman style, Sinan pioneered a layout where the men's and women's sections are perfect mirror images. It was the first Turkish bathhouse to have both sections on the same axis.

The bathhouse closed in 1910 and was later used as a prison and a warehouse. It was restored between 1957 and 1958 and later became a carpet bazaar. In 2007, the Istanbul city government decided to restore the bathhouse. After three years of restoration work by the Faculty of Architecture at Kocaeli University in Turkey, the bathhouse reopened in 2011.

The bathhouse is now called Ayasofya Hurrem Sultan Hamami, and its official website is https://www.ayasofyahamami.com/. The price seems to be 160 euros. If you have some extra money, I really recommend experiencing this bathhouse designed by Mimar Sinan.









To the left is the Hagia Sophia, and to the right is the bathhouse. Collapse Read »

Reposted from the web

Summary: Hyderabad — Asaf Jahi Dynasty, Mosques and Deccan History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Hyderabad sits on the Deccan Plateau in South India. Its name means the city (abad) of the lion (Hyder). The account keeps its focus on Asaf Jahi Dynasty, Hyderabad, Deccan History while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Hyderabad sits on the Deccan Plateau in South India. Its name means the city (abad) of the lion (Hyder). In 1591, the Qutb Shahi dynasty, founded by Deccan Muslims, built the city of Hyderabad and made it their capital. In 1687, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb captured Hyderabad after an eight-month siege and added it to the Mughal Empire.

In 1724, a high-ranking Mughal official named Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi set up his own government in Hyderabad. Because he used the highest honorific title of the Mughal Empire, Asaf Jahi, his line became known as the Asaf Jahi dynasty. The rulers of the Asaf Jahi dynasty also kept using the title Nizam ul-Mulk granted by the Mughal Empire, so the state was also called the Kingdom of the Nizam of Hyderabad.

The Asaf Jahi family came from the Transoxiana region of Central Asia. The grandfather of Asaf Jah I moved from Samarkand to the Deccan in 1654. Asaf Jah I followed the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb on military campaigns from a young age and earned many honors in battle. After Aurangzeb died, Asaf Jah I gradually took control of the Deccan region.

In fact, the Asaf Jahi dynasty was never truly independent from the Mughal Empire, and they still used the Mughal flag. Until 1948, the Friday khutbah (sermon) during Jumu'ah prayers was still delivered in the name of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.

Chowmahalla Palace

After Asaf Jah I died in 1748, his sons fought a civil war to take power. Eventually, Asaf Jah I's third son, Salabat Jung, ruled Hyderabad with help from the French and started building the Chowmahalla Palace in 1750.

The name Chowmahalla comes from the Dakhini Urdu words char mahallat, which mean four palaces. The palace is still the property of Barkat Ali Khan Mukarram Jah, the grandson of the last Nizam, and the Nizam family holds their weddings here. Mukarram Jah was the richest person in India until the 1980s, with an estimated net worth of 1 billion dollars.

Chowmahalla Palace originally covered 180,000 square meters, but only 49,000 square meters remain today. The existing palace is divided into a south section and a north section.

The clock tower (Khilwat Clock) above the palace gate has been running for over 200 years, and a family of clockmakers who have passed the skill down through generations winds the mechanical clock every week.

On the east side of the north section is the Bara Imam, which was used for administrative offices and is decorated with Deccan-style domes and arches, along with many Persian elements. The Shishe-Alat, built as a mirror image on the west side, served as guest rooms for visiting dignitaries.













Khilwat Mubarak is the most important building in Chowmahalla Palace, used for various official events and religious ceremonies, including the coronation of the eighth Nizam in 1967. Inside the hall is a marble platform that holds the Takht-e-Nishan throne. Nineteen luxury Belgian crystal chandeliers were recently installed in the main hall.



















Portraits and photos of the Nizam of Hyderabad, along with the tableware he used.

A photo of the seventh Nizam and his wife taken in 1916.



A photo of the seventh Nizam and his two sons taken in 1908.



The Nizam drinking tea.















Uniforms of the Maisram Regiment, the palace guards of the Nizam of Hyderabad.





Photos of the Maisram Regiment attending the Nizam's birthday celebrations in 1935 and 1956.





Walls covered in weapons.



The royal gilded copper fish-shaped flag of the Nizam of Hyderabad from the 18th to 19th century, known as Mahi wau Maratib. The fish has been a symbol of power since the Timurid era. The fish-shaped flag of the Asaf Jahi dynasty was an honor bestowed upon the Nizam of Hyderabad by the Mughal imperial court. The flag consists of one fish head (Mahi) and two scepters (Maratib), which were held high at the front of the procession during royal ceremonies.



A painting of the Mahi wau Maratib from 1880.



Enter the south section from the north section of Chowmahalla Palace. The south section contains four palaces: Afzal Mahal, Mahtab Mahal, Tahniyat Mahal, and Aftab Mahal, which is where the palace gets its name. The southern palaces were destroyed in a gunpowder explosion at the end of the 18th century and rebuilt in the 19th century in a neoclassical style, incorporating many European elements.

First, let's look at the gate between the north and south sections.













Enter the south section from the north section of Chowmahalla Palace. The south section contains four palaces: Afzal Mahal, Mahtab Mahal, Tahniyat Mahal, and Aftab Mahal, which is where the palace gets its name. The southern palaces were destroyed in a gunpowder explosion at the end of the 18th century and rebuilt in the 19th century in a neoclassical style, incorporating many European elements.

The two buildings on the east and west sides are named after the moon (Mahtab) and the sun (Aftab). The two buildings have slightly different decorations to reflect the characteristics of the moon and the sun, and they display court costumes from the Nizam of Hyderabad.











The Afzal Mahal on the south side is the largest, and it displays French furniture and Turkish chandeliers used by the sixth Nizam of Hyderabad.













Tombs of the Nizams

South of the main hall of the Mecca Mosque (Mecca Masjid) in Hyderabad are the tombs of the second through sixth Nizams of Hyderabad. The building housing the tombs was built in 1914 by the last Nizam, Mir Osman Ali Khan. I was at the mosque in Mecca for Friday namaz when I happened to hear everyone inside the tomb building praising Allah and the Prophet. It sounded beautiful.











Paigah Tombs

The Paigah family was the most powerful family in the Asaf Jahi dynasty after the Nizam. They were the only family in Hyderabad besides the Nizam to own palaces. The 18th and 19th-century tombs of the Paigah family are famous for their beautiful plasterwork and marble carvings.

When you enter the Paigah Tombs, the first thing you see is the tomb of Ghansimiyan. Sardar-ul-mulk Ghansi Miyan was a general during the reign of Nizam Ali Khan of Hyderabad (who ruled from 1762 to 1803) and was a close relative of the Paigah family. The tombs are currently being restored by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture in partnership with the Telangana Heritage Department, but progress is slow due to the pandemic.







To the right is Khavas Pura, where many children of the Paigah family who died young are buried.







North of Khavas Pura is the tomb of Lateef Unnisa, who was said to be a very beautiful lady. The tombstone is very simple, but the room is covered in intricate carvings, including stucco panels shaped like flowers and decorative bands shaped like pineapples. Pineapples were rare, so they became a symbol of wealth in Hyderabad.



















At the far northwest end of the tomb area is the mosque used for prayer, and across from it are the connected tombs of the main figures of the Paigah family. The tomb uses complex perforated screen (jaali) techniques to carve the wooden doors and window screens.



















This is the tomb of Fakhruddin Khan, the second leader of the Paigah family. He became the leader after his father died in 1791 and received the title Amir-e-Kabir, which means head of the nobles. He married the daughter of Asaf Jah II in 1797, starting the tradition of the Nizam of Hyderabad marrying his daughters to young nobles from the Paigah family.







Behind is the tomb of Asman Jah (1839-1898), with beautiful marble carvings around the tombstone. Asman Jah was the grandson of Fakhruddin Khan, the second leader of the Paigah family. He served as the Prime Minister of the Asaf Jahi dynasty in Hyderabad from 1887 to 1894 and represented Hyderabad at the 50th anniversary celebration of Queen Victoria's reign.

None of the Paigah family tombs have roofs, which follows the style of the tomb of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.













Salar Jung Museum

The Salar Jung family was the most prominent family in the Asaf Jahi dynasty of Hyderabad after the Nizam family and the Paigah family. Five of its members served as Prime Ministers of the Asaf Jahi dynasty during the 19th century. Salar Jung III (1889–1949) was a passionate collector. Over 35 years, he spent a great deal of energy and money collecting artifacts from all over the world. After Salar Jung III passed away in 1949, these collections were kept in their family's Diwan Devdi palace. They opened to the public as the Salar Jung Museum in 1951 and moved to the current location after 1968.

A portrait of Salar Jung III as a child



The hat worn by Salar Jung III.





19th-century Canton famille rose porcelain (guangcai) with Persian script made for export.

Canton famille rose porcelain (guangcai) is short for Guangzhou gold-woven colored porcelain, a famous export porcelain from the mid-to-late Qing dynasty. During the Kangxi reign, the Thirteen Factories (shisanhang) were established in Guangzhou for foreign trade, and porcelain was a major export item. At first, export porcelain was ordered directly from Jingdezhen. By the Yongzheng reign, Guangzhou porcelain merchants began shipping plain white porcelain blanks from Jingdezhen to Guangzhou. They hired Jingdezhen craftsmen to paint them in Guangzhou using low-temperature overglaze colors, which is how Canton famille rose porcelain (guangcai) began.

After the Qianlong reign, Canton famille rose porcelain (guangcai) matured and developed its own colorful, ornate style. The main colors were locally made Western red, crane-spring color, eggplant color, deep ochre, and powder green. After the Daoguang reign, the number of colors grew to over a dozen. In the late Qing dynasty, Canton famille rose porcelain (guangcai) was mass-produced with uniform patterns. Bowls, plates, and dishes often featured a gold-rimmed circle in the center, with the surrounding area filled in a 'full-coverage' style with flowers, fruits, birds, fish, insects, figures, and landscapes, along with logos specified by foreign merchants.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, as the British East India Company imported large amounts of Chinese export porcelain, wealthy Muslim families began ordering custom pieces with Arabic and Persian inscriptions. The most famous of these were the Asaf Jahi dynasty of Hyderabad and the Qajar dynasty of Persia. However, most of these Muslim families placed their orders through the British East India Company in London rather than directly in Guangzhou.













The porcelain plates and bowls are inscribed with the name 'Siraj ud-Daulah Bahadur'. Siraj ud-Daulah (1733-1757) was the last independent Nawab of Bengal. The end of his rule marked the beginning of British rule in India.





Porcelain inscribed with Arabic and Persian.





Telangana State Archaeology Museum.

The Telangana State Archaeology Museum is commonly known as the Hyderabad Museum. It was founded in 1930 by the last ruler of the Asaf Jahi dynasty of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII (reigned 1911-1948).

Mir Osman Ali Khan owned the world's only diamond mines and was considered the richest man in the world at the time. He appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1937. He is also known as the 'Architect of Modern Hyderabad.' He brought electricity, roads, railways, and airports to Hyderabad and founded many public institutions such as universities, hospitals, and banks. The Hyderabad Museum is one of them.

















The Quran, copied in 1647 by Dara Shikoh using Naskh script, includes a Persian translation.



Miniature paintings from the museum collection.

An 18th-century painting of Nizam Ali Khan, Asaf Jah II (1762-1803), the second ruler of the Asaf Jahi dynasty in Hyderabad.



A 17th-century painting of a Sultan from the Qutb Shahi dynasty (1518-1687) in Hyderabad.



An 18th-century painting of a teacher.



A 16th-century painting of nobles at a dinner party.



A 17th-century painting of Jahangir (reigned 1605-1627), the fourth emperor of the Mughal Empire.



A miniature painting from the time of Akbar (reigned 1556-1605), the third emperor of the 16th-century Mughal Empire.



A miniature painting from the 16th-century Persian epic, the Shahnameh.

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Summary: Delhi's Seventh City — Mughal Capital and Muslim History is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: In my last article, The Sixth City of Delhi: The Birth of the Mughal Empire, I wrote about how Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, fell to his death from his library in the sixth city of Delhi, Dinpanah, in 1556. The account keeps its focus on Delhi Travel, Mughal History, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

In my last article, The Sixth City of Delhi: The Birth of the Mughal Empire, I wrote about how Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, fell to his death from his library in the sixth city of Delhi, Dinpanah, in 1556. His son, Emperor Akbar, moved the Mughal capital to Agra in 1558, and Delhi lost its status as the capital.

In 1628, Shah Jahan became the fifth emperor of the Mughal Empire. Under his rule, Mughal architectural aesthetics reached a new height, and this period is widely recognized as the golden age of Mughal architecture. Besides building the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi between 1639 and 1648, naming it Shahjahanabad after himself. Shah Jahan made Shahjahanabad the capital of the Mughal Empire, aiming to show the grandeur and power of the empire.

Shahjahanabad is now known as Old Delhi and still keeps many historical sites and traditional neighborhoods. The most important site inside the city, the Red Fort, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list in 2007.

The layout of Shahjahanabad was inspired by the ancient Persian city of Isfahan and inherited urban planning ideas from the Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri, which were built by the previous Mughal emperor, Akbar. The city has an irregular shape, with the eastern wall built along the course of the Yamuna River. The Yamuna River later changed its course and moved away from the walls, and the original riverbed is now the Delhi Inner Ring Road.

The city has two main roads: Chandni Chowk running east-west and Faiz Bazaar running north-south, with major commercial areas on both sides of the streets. The Red Fort, where the Mughal royal family lived, is located at the junction of these two main roads.



1858



1914

Table of Contents

1. Red Fort: 1639-1648

1. Lahore Gate

2. Chhatta Chowk (market)

3. Naubat Khana (drum house)

4. Diwan-i-Aam (public audience hall)

5. Rang Mahal (palace of the empresses)

6. Khas Mahal (emperor's private palace)

7. Diwan-i-Khas (private audience hall)

8. Hammam-e-Lal Qila (bathhouse)

9. Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid)

10. King's Tower (Shah Burj)

11. Life-Giving Garden (Hayat Bakhsh Bagh)

2. Jama Mosque: 1650-1656

3. Fatehpuri Mosque: 1650

4. Golden Mosque (Sunehri Masjid): 1751

5. Great Mosque (Kalan Masjid): 1387

6. Hauzwali Mosque: 15th century

1. Red Fort: 1639-1648

Shah Jahan decided to move the capital from Agra back to Delhi in 1638. On May 12, 1639, he ordered the construction of the Red Fort. The designer was Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, the architect who built the Taj Mahal.

On the north side of the Red Fort is the Salimgarh Fort, built by the Sur dynasty in 1546 (I introduced this in my previous article, 'The Sixth City of Delhi: The Birth of the Mughal Empire'). The Red Fort was designed to connect to Salimgarh Fort via a bridge, joining the two castles together.

In 1857, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, left the Red Fort and was arrested by the British army. He was tried at the Red Fort in 1858 and exiled to Yangon, marking the end of the Mughal Empire. Afterward, the Red Fort was used as a British military barracks. Most of the buildings were demolished. Only the marble structures in the far east survived because they were repurposed as barracks, offices, dormitories, and canteens.

After India's independence, the Red Fort continued to be used as an Indian Army barracks until 2003, when the Archaeological Survey of India was finally authorized to begin restoration. In 2009, the Archaeological Survey of India developed a comprehensive protection and management plan for the Red Fort under the direction of the Supreme Court.

The Red Fort viewed from east to west, painted in 1785.



The Red Fort viewed from east to west, painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



1. Lahore Gate

The Lahore Gate is the west gate of the Red Fort. It is named for facing the city of Lahore. During the reign of the sixth Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb (reigned 1658-1707), a barbican was added to the outside of the gate. Since 1947, the Prime Minister of India has stood at the Lahore Gate to deliver a speech every Indian Independence Day.





Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.











2. Chhatta Chowk (market)

After entering the Lahore Gate, you find a market called Chhatta Chowk. During the Mughal era, this was where silk and jewelry were sold to members of the royal family.







Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



(Optional) Image description

3. Naubat Khana (drum house)

After walking through the Chhatta Chowk market, you reach the outer courtyard of the Red Fort. The building in the center of the outer courtyard is called the Naubat Khana, which serves as the main gate to the inner court. Naubat Khana means 'drum house.' During the Mughal era, ceremonial music was played here five times a day, and everyone except members of the royal family had to dismount from their horses when they reached this point. After 1857, the British army destroyed the arcades on both sides of the Naubat Khana and the central pool, leaving only the central building.



Photographed in 1858 by British army officer Robert Christopher Tytler and his wife Harriet.













4. Diwan-i-Aam (public audience hall)

After passing through the Naubat Khana, you enter the inner courtyard of the Red Fort, where the Diwan-i-Aam stands directly in front of you. Diwan-i-Aam means 'Hall of Public Audience.' It was the place where the Mughal emperor met with the public to hear their concerns.







In the center of the hall is the throne where the emperor sat. The marble steps below the throne were where the prime minister (wazir) received petitions from the public.



The door behind the throne, painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.





5. Rang Mahal (palace of the empresses)

After entering the Diwan-i-Aam, you reach the harem section of the Red Fort. Rang Mahal means 'Palace of Colors.' It was the living quarters for the concubines of the Mughal emperor.







Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

A shallow canal called the Stream of Paradise (Nahr-i-Bihist) flows into the marble pool in front of the Rang Mahal. During the hot summer, the women of the Mughal royal family would stay in the basement of the Diwan-i-Aam to escape the heat.





Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

6. Khas Mahal (emperor's private palace)

To the north of the Rang Mahal is the Khass Mahal, which was the sleeping quarters of the Mughal emperor. The Rang Mahal was built of white marble. Its walls were originally inlaid with various jewels and the ceiling was gilded, but these features have not been preserved.







Painted by Sir Thomas Theophilus Metcalfe in 1843.

The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, ascends the throne in the Khas Mahal, painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1837 and 1838.



7. Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas)

North of the Khas Mahal is the Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas), where the Mughal emperor met with courtiers and state guests. The Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) means "private reception room." It is built of white marble and was once inlaid with various jewels, featuring the exquisite Peacock Throne in the center. The hall once had a ceiling inlaid with gold and silver, but these were later removed. The current ceiling was installed in 1911.

Outside the hall, there used to be red awnings, and the arches below were inscribed with verses by the famous Sufi master Amir Khusrow:

If there is a paradise on earth,

It is this, it is this, it is this.





Painted by Ghulam 'Ali Khan in 1817.









Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



The Peacock Throne in 1850.

8. Hammam-e-Lal Qila (bathhouse)

North of the Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas) is the Red Fort Bathhouse (Hammam-e-Lal Qila), which was used by the Mughal royal family. The Red Fort Bathhouse (Hammam-e-Lal Qila) is a Turkish-style bath consisting of three sections: a children's bath, a dressing room, and a hot bath. Legend has it that the water flowing from the taps at that time was mixed with rose perfume.





Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

9. Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid)

The Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) is west of the bathhouse. It was built by the sixth Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb, between 1659 and 1660 for his second wife, Nawab Bai. Pearl (Moti) means "pearl." It is built of white marble, and its three domes were originally covered with gilded copper plates, which were lost after 1857.









Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.



Painted by Vasily Vereshchagin in the late 1880s.

10. King's Tower (Shah Burj)

The northernmost part of the harem is a white marble pavilion built during the Aurangzeb period. Behind the pavilion is the Shahi Burj, the northeast corner tower of the Red Fort, which means "Imperial Tower." Inside the tower is a hydraulic system that carries water from outside the Red Fort into its gardens and buildings.







Painted by Sir Thomas Metcalfe in 1843.

11. Life-Giving Garden (Hayat Bakhsh Bagh)

In the northwest part of the harem is the royal water garden Hayat Bakhsh Bagh, which means 'Life-Giving Garden'. Most of the garden's buildings were destroyed after 1857, and only three survive today.

At the center of the garden is the red sandstone building Zafar Mahal, built in 1842 by the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II. The building sits in a pool and was originally connected to the shore by a red sandstone bridge, but it was destroyed after 1857. After 1857, the British army used this area as a swimming pool.











Painted by Ghulam Ali Khan between 1852 and 1854.

To the north and south of the garden are two white marble pavilions called Sawan and Bhadon, named after the months of July and August in the Indian rainy season, as the ladies of the Mughal palace loved to visit the garden during these two months. The pavilions have wall niches that held vases with golden flowers during the day and small oil lamps at night.





To the west of Hayat Bakhsh Bagh, there was originally another water garden called Mehtab Bagh, meaning 'Moon Garden,' but after 1857, the site was turned into a British military barracks, and now only ruins remain.



2. Jama Mosque: 1650-1656

The Jama Masjid mosque is located southwest of the Red Fort; it was built between 1650 and 1656 by order of Shah Jahan and served as the royal mosque of the Mughal Empire.

The mosque was built by more than 5,000 workers under the leadership of Shah Jahan's vizier (wazir) Saadullah Khan, costing over 1 million rupees. The mosque stands on a platform more than 9 meters above the ground and is made of red sandstone and marble, featuring a main hall connected by colonnades, two 40-meter-high minarets, and three gates. The east gate was reserved for the Mughal royal family and had a path that connected directly to the Delhi Gate of the Red Fort.

After 1857, the British seized the Jama Masjid mosque and stationed troops inside. They originally wanted to demolish the mosque, but they failed due to strong opposition, though the madrasa (Islamic school) on the south side of the mosque was destroyed as a result.















The mihrab in the center of the main hall indicates the direction of prayer toward Mecca:





Besides the main mihrab in the center, there is a smaller mihrab on each side.



During Jumu'ah, the imam stands on this stone platform to deliver the khutbah.



There is a tower at each of the four corners of the colonnade.







The east gate is the main entrance:





South Gate



North Gate



The water pool in the courtyard for wudu:





Jama means Jumu'ah, which refers to the Friday congregational prayer. The Jumu'ah mosque is usually the largest in the community, and the most important weekly prayer is held here every Friday at noon. I was lucky enough to attend a Friday Jumu'ah prayer at the Jama Mosque.

On the morning of Jumu'ah, more prayer rugs were already laid out in the courtyard.



People are performing wudu for the Jumu'ah prayer:



More and more people are arriving.







The imam leading the prayer climbs onto the stone platform.



After the prayer, people take photos:





3. Fatehpuri Mosque: 1650

Fatehpuri Mosque is located at the western end of Chandni Chowk, the main east-west road in Shahjahanabad. It was built in 1650 under the direction of Fatehpuri Begum, the wife of Shah Jahan. The mosque is in the classic Mughal style, built with red sandstone, featuring minarets on both sides and a main prayer hall in the middle. The main hall has seven arched bays, and the central iwan arch is topped with a Mughal-style dome.

















4. Golden Mosque (Sunehri Masjid): 1751

Sunehri Mosque is located south of the Red Fort. It was built in 1751 by Qudsia Begum, the wife of the twelfth Mughal Emperor, Muhammad Shah. After Muhammad Shah died, Qudsia Begum's son, Ahmad Shah Bahadur, succeeded to the throne, making Qudsia Begum the de facto ruler of the Mughal Empire between 1748 and 1754.

During her rule, Qudsia Begum built a series of structures in Delhi, and the Sunehri Mosque is the most understated in its architectural style. The mosque's dome was originally copper-plated, but during renovations in 1852, sandstone replaced the damaged copper plates.













5. Great Mosque (Kalan Masjid): 1387

Kalan Mosque is one of the very few mosques in Shahjahanabad that existed before the city was built. It was constructed in 1387 by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, the vizier of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq (reigned 1351-1388) of the Delhi Sultanate's Tughlaq dynasty. It is believed to have been built to commemorate a Sufi saint.

The mosque has been in continuous use, so the interior has changed significantly.









6. Hauzwali Mosque: 15th century

Hauzwali Mosque is another mosque that existed before the city of Shahjahanabad was built. Because the ground level has changed so much over time, the bottom half of the mosque is now underground, leaving only the top parts of the arches and the mihrab visible.





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Summary: Urumqi Hui Muslim Home Cooking: 15 Halal Dishes is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: My mother-in-law came to Beijing in March and made us 15 Urumqi Hui Muslim dishes: big plate chicken with belt noodles (dapanji pidaimian), lamb hand-torn noodle soup (yangrou jiupianzi), Xinjiang meatball soup. The account keeps its focus on Urumqi Halal Food, Hui Muslim Food, Xinjiang Travel while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

My mother-in-law came to Beijing in March and made us 15 Urumqi Hui Muslim dishes: big plate chicken with belt noodles (dapanji pidaimian), lamb hand-torn noodle soup (yangrou jiupianzi), Xinjiang meatball soup (xinjiang wanzitang), dry-mixed noodles with lamb bean paste (yangrou zhajiang ganbanmian), lamb sour soup wontons (yangrou suantang huntun), Jingzhe oil tea eggs (jingzhe youcha dan), thin-skinned buns (baopi baozi), lamb vermicelli soup (yangrou fentang), cold-dressed chicken (liangban ji), diced stir-fried noodles (dingding chaomian), sour soup noodles with minced meat (suantang saozi mian), fragrant bean flower rolls (xiangdou huajuan), plate noodles (panzi mian), flavored fried starch jelly (fengwei zha menzi), and lamb and celery dumplings (yangrou qincai jiaozi). Since the official account can only insert 10 video channel clips, I will share the first 8 this time.

1. Big plate chicken with belt noodles (dapanji pidaimian)

My mother-in-law brought free-range chicken all the way from Urumqi. First, stir-fry the chicken with plenty of oil. Add chicken pieces, dried chili skins (lapizi), and ginger slices to the pot. Then add salt, Sichuan peppercorn powder, black pepper powder, tomato paste, bean paste, green onions, and garlic. Stir-fry until the blood is gone, then add soy sauce. Next, stew the chicken in a pressure cooker, adding water, the chicken, and potato chunks. After opening the pot, take out the potatoes, then add green onions, garlic, and vinegar.

Once finished, stretch the belt noodles; they taste best soaked in the big plate chicken broth.







2. Lamb hand-torn noodle soup (yangrou jiupianzi)

First, stir-fry lamb slices with tomatoes (yangshizi), green onions, and garlic. Add soy sauce and stir-fried potato slices, then add water. Stretch the dough and tear off small pieces into the pot. Finally, add black pepper powder and cilantro, and finish with a splash of vinegar.







3. Xinjiang meatball soup (xinjiang wanzitang)

For the Iftar meal, my mother-in-law made this Xinjiang specialty meatball soup using meat ground fresh at the Ma family shop in Douban Alley. The secret to the fried meatballs is pouring hot oil over the black pepper powder while mixing the filling. The best base for the meatball soup is broth made from beef marrow bones. You can add side dishes like spinach, king oyster mushrooms, tofu, carrots, or wood ear mushrooms.















4. Dry-mixed noodles with lamb bean paste (yangrou zhajiang ganbanmian)

Zainab said Urumqi has its own local version of bean paste noodles. I had never noticed it before and was very curious, so I finally got to eat it this time. These are hand-rolled cut noodles; our cutting board is still not quite big enough. Besides lamb, the bean paste sauce includes potatoes, carrots, and celery. It uses Pixian bean paste, so the flavor is completely different from Beijing-style bean paste noodles.

















5. Lamb sour soup wontons (yangrou suantang huntun)

I especially love the stewed lamb sour soup wontons (hong dong) made by Xinjiang Hui Muslims. After the lamb is stewed, add tomatoes, spinach, scallions, and cilantro. The wontons have the classic lamb and onion (piyazi) filling.













6. Jingzhe oil tea eggs (jingzhe youcha dan)

March 5th is the Awakening of Insects (Jingzhe), when all things come back to life. In the morning, we ate this seasonal Xinjiang Hui Muslim delicacy, Jingzhe oil tea eggs. Stir-fry eggs with dried fruits like raisins and walnut kernels, then pour in brewed brick tea and add rock sugar. Traditional oil tea with egg (youcha dan) must be stir-fried with mutton fat, but we use olive oil.













7. Thin-skinned steamed buns (baopi baozi)

Thin-skinned steamed buns (manti) filled with mutton and onions. Manti is a classic Silk Road snack. It spread to Central and West Asia with Turkic soldiers during the Mongol conquests and was later spread further by the Ottoman Empire. The word manti comes from mantou. Even today, the Wu dialect uses mantou to refer to meat-filled flour dishes. In 1330, the first year of the Zhishun era of the Yuan Dynasty, the imperial physician Hu Sihui wrote the Principles of Correct Diet (Yinshan Zhengyao). It records many ways to make mantou, all using mutton, mutton fat, green onions, dried tangerine peel, and salt for the filling. It even mentions the term thin-skinned mantou.











8. Mutton noodle soup (yangrou fentang)

This is the festive noodle soup made during the Mawlid (Zhuo Bailati). First, braise the mutton, then stir the pea starch and let it sit overnight before cutting it into starch blocks. Next, make a topping with cabbage, small radishes, mutton slices, and tomatoes. When you eat it, soak some fried dough (youxiang) in the soup.

















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Reposted from the web

Summary: Beijing Winter Diary — Mosques, Halal Food and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: Everything I ate in Beijing between December 2021 and February 2022, starting with the resumption of Jumu'ah prayers in Beijing and ending with the Night Journey (Isra and Mi'raj) dinner. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Mosques, Halal Food, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.

Everything I ate in Beijing between December 2021 and February 2022, starting with the resumption of Jumu'ah prayers in Beijing and ending with the Night Journey (Isra and Mi'raj) dinner. Thinking about winter during the summer, it feels so good to dine in at restaurants.

December 3, Xinyuezhai at Douban Hutong.

Alhamdulillah, the mosques in Beijing have finally opened. I attended Jumu'ah at Nandouyacai Mosque, then went to the nearby Xinyuezhai for beef noodles and a small bowl of beef.











December 4, clear-stewed lamb spine (yangxiezi).

I bought some lamb spine at the entrance of the Chaoyangmen Life Supermarket and made clear-stewed lamb spine at home.









You can add green beans and mushrooms to the leftover clear-stewed lamb spine.



December 9, Gulou Chimian at Jinbao Street.

After work, I went to Gulou Chimian on Jinbao Street to have my favorite braised lamb and Sichuan peppercorn noodle soup (huajiao cuamian). I never get tired of it, and even though they have so many kinds of noodles, I rarely try anything else. I also had the newly added deep-fried crispy pork (xiaosurou), which was quite fragrant and worth ordering again.







December 10, Longxianghui's flatbread stew (hubo).

The Gansu Pingliang restaurant Longxianghui on Dongsi North Street added flatbread stew, meat sauce noodles (saozimian), and cold noodles to their menu. I tried the flatbread stew last night, and it really suits my taste. Pingliang flatbread stew is the opposite of lamb pita soup (yangrou paomo). For lamb pita soup, you have to eat the semi-leavened bread quickly after soaking it, but for flatbread stew, the longer the fried dough sticks (youbangzi) soak, the better they taste.









December 17, home-cooked meal.

I made braised pomfret with diced potatoes, carrots, and cucumbers. Zainabu made braised eggplant with green beans and onions (piyanzi) with wood ear mushrooms. Zainabu's braised eggplant and green beans capture the essence of our Beijing home cooking, and I love it so much.







December 18, Urumqi Office in Beijing.

After visiting the Xinqiao Market at noon, I went to the Urumqi Office in Beijing at Chegongzhuang. I realized I hadn't been there in seven years. This was the Xinjiang restaurant I visited most when I was a kid. Most of my childhood memories of Xinjiang food come from here. I definitely didn't expect back then that I would eventually become a son-in-law from Urumqi, haha.

I ordered horse sausage (machangzi) and vegetable pilaf (zhuafan) to make my own horse sausage pilaf. The pilaf was oily and delicious, but the horse sausage wasn't oily enough and felt a bit dry. The grilled meat (kaorou) tasted great. The baked buns (kaobaozi) weren't very crispy, and I finished by ordering a mixed vegetable stew (huicai).















December 26, chain restaurant Quanzhou Beef House Niujiufen.

Passing through Xihongmen in Daxing, I ate at the chain restaurant Quanzhou Beef House (Niujiufen) inside the Livat shopping center. The famous Xue Family (Xuejia), known as the number one hot pot in southern Beijing from the Hui Muslim village of Xueying in Daxing, has opened three halal restaurants in Livat: Speed Pizza, Niujiufen, and Lou Sanshao. They are all halal, though you cannot tell from the outside.

I ate Quanzhou-style beef ribs, beef soup, abalone sauce vermicelli (mianxian), and drank seaweed jelly (shihuagao) made from agar-agar. Zainab really likes the taste of the Quanzhou-style soy-braised beef; it is not greasy and a little sweet.



















December 27, Muyixuan Lamb Spine Hot Pot.

In the evening, I ate lamb spine hot pot at Muyixuan in Ping'anli.





January 9, Ali Restaurant on Shenlu Street.

Ali Restaurant on Shenlu Street uses pilaf (zhuafan) inside their rice sausages. It is the most authentic I have had in Beijing, and the other dishes were quite good too. The meat in the pilaf was very fragrant, though the liver slices were a bit tough.















Account.

January 10, Syrian restaurant One Thousand and One Nights.

It is my second wedding anniversary with Zainab, so we celebrated at One Thousand and One Nights after work. One Thousand and One Nights is a long-standing Arabic restaurant in Beijing. The owner is Syrian, and the shop opened in 2004, making it 17 years old now. When I was in middle school, I would pass by their place every time I went home from Chaoyang Park. Back then, they were the symbol of a high-end restaurant in my mind, perfectly matching the vibe of the embassy district. At that time, the major shopping malls in Sanlitun had not been built yet, so their place was really eye-catching. In the blink of an eye, more than ten years have passed, and I can finally afford to eat at One Thousand and One Nights.

To this day, One Thousand and One Nights remains the highest-class, most diverse, and best-tasting Arabic restaurant in Beijing. We ordered seafood soup, Kofta meatball soup, pine nut hummus, mozzarella cheese salad, Kashkash kebab, lamb mandi rice in a tagine, and cauliflower with eggplant. Except for the cauliflower and eggplant being a bit oily, everything else was delicious. Their lamb mandi rice is definitely the best I have had in Beijing. The lamb is fresh and tender, and the rice is filled with saffron, raisins, cashews, and various spices, making it smell amazing. The Kashkash kebab is made with parsley, green and red peppers, and garlic, which I think is a Syrian specialty.

















January 14, Madeburg inside Chaoyangmen.

My second visit to Madeburg inside Chaoyangmen; I ordered a whole chicken, fries, and milk tea. I have fallen in love with their freshly made whole chicken. It is much better than burgers, haha. Putting on gloves and tearing it apart to eat is very satisfying. Freshly fried french fries are, of course, both fragrant and have a great texture. Boss Zhang said he found that pizza baked a little longer tastes even better than the standard way, so he shared one with me. I found that pizza baked a bit longer has a scent like naan bread and is both crispy and crunchy, haha.

Before leaving, I received a distributed Islamic calendar from Maidebao. When I got home, I took down the one from last year issued by the Grace Bookstore on Niujie Street and put up the new one. I feel that changing the Islamic calendar every year gives a special sense of ritual that a year has passed. The second month is Isra and Mi'raj, the third is Bara'at, the fourth is the start of Ramadan and Laylat al-Qadr, the fifth is Eid al-Fitr, the seventh is Arafah, Eid al-Adha, and the Islamic New Year, the eighth is Ashura, and the tenth is Mawlid. A new year begins just like that.











January 15, Indian food Mirch Masala.

I ate Indian food at Mirch Masala on Xiushui Street; the shop name 'mirch' means chili pepper. The restaurant is quite small, with two Indian guys, one as the chef and one as the waiter. It is not big but the food is delicious, reminding me of the South Asian eateries found everywhere in Dubai.

We ordered lamb korma curry, chicken biryani rice, masala tea, kadhai paneer (curry tofu), and their homemade yogurt. Putting the curry, rice, and yogurt on a plate and eating them together is especially fragrant. Finally, we packed the korma curry to take home, planning to add a little bit when we stir-fry dishes over the next few days.

Korma is a type of curry stewed with coconut milk or yogurt. The etymology of 'korma' comes from 'Qawirma' in Turkic, which originally meant to fry, but after evolving into the Urdu word 'Qormā', the meaning changed to stew. Korma is a classic Mughal court dish that started in the 16th century. People say Shah Jahan and his guests ate Korma at the banquet for the completion of the Taj Mahal.

Biryani is a Persian loanword in Urdu, also likely originating from the Mughal court. People say the Mughal imperial chefs created it by combining Indian spicy rice with Persian pilaf. In Mughal dynasty documents, the terms 'biryanis' and 'Pulao' (pilaf) appeared separately, and at that time, the two could be used interchangeably. It is generally believed that biryani is mixed with more spices than pilaf and has a stronger curry flavor.

The recipe for masala tea is not fixed, but it basically includes black tea, milk, sugar, cardamom, black pepper, and ginger. Other spices include cinnamon, star anise, fennel seeds, cloves, and so on.

Kadhai comes from 'Kataha' in the ancient Indian Prakrit dialect, meaning iron pot, which was even mentioned in the Ramayana. This cooking method is relatively popular in northern South Asia and Afghanistan.















January 16, Kashgar Mahmuti Restaurant.

In the afternoon, I went to the Kashgar Mahmuti Restaurant near Baiyun Temple. It is a restaurant that opened in 2005, yet this was my first time eating there. I used to stop at Jiasan and never walked any further. Who knew there was such a restaurant right next to Jiasan!

First, look at the shop name, then look at the freshly baked naan at the entrance, and then look at the interior decoration; it is absolutely like arriving in Erdaoqiao in a second. The staff are all Uyghurs, and when we walked in, a large Uyghur family was celebrating a birthday. We ordered yogurt, roasted lamb chops, lamb liver, lamb skewers (chuanr), Kashgar stew (Kashi duncai), and guirou langman. We wanted to order pigeon soup, but the waiter heard dough drop soup (gedatang) instead. Later, he told us they were out of pigeon soup and swapped it for lamb skewers.

Their yogurt is the most authentic thing on the menu! I have never had such authentic Xinjiang yogurt in Beijing. This homemade yogurt is twenty times better than the packaged Xinjiang brands in supermarket freezers, ten times better than the yogurt at chain restaurants like Bayi Laoye, and five times better than the yogurt at Uyghur spots like Baizuan. I would even say that many restaurants in Urumqi don't have yogurt as good as theirs.

The roasted meat is very fragrant and tender, and the liver is better than the one at Ali on Shenlu Street. The lamb chops are a bit tough, but some people love them that way. The meat in the guirou langman is very authentic; it is the kind that is a bit hard after being deep-fried. The noodles (langman) are a bit soft and average, not as good as the ones at Baizuan. The meat in the stew is a bit hard, maybe because they used air-dried meat, so we packed it to go to stew it again at home. Also, they didn't have the meat jelly (jiasha) listed on the menu and used fried tofu puffs instead, but the flavor was still very authentic.

Overall, I think this place is top-tier among Uyghur restaurants in Beijing, right up there with Ali and Baizuan. Next time I want to try their pilaf (zhuafan) to see how it tastes.

















January 19, Kuqa Uyghur Restaurant, Crescent Moon (Wanwan Yueliang)

I ate at the Kuqa Uyghur Restaurant, Crescent Moon, on Dongsi Liutiao before seeing a play in the evening. This is truly the oldest Uyghur restaurant in Dongsi; I have been eating here for over a decade, ever since I was in middle school. To be honest, their quality isn't as good as what I've had in Xinjiang. In Beijing, they only rank as mid-tier, behind Baizuan, Ali, and Maihemuti.

This time I ordered my usuals: kebabs (kawapu), pilaf (poluo), and stew (huo'erdun). The roasted meat is great, no complaints there. The rice in the pilaf is fine, but their minced meat has always been too dry. The stew is the opposite; the potatoes and carrots are delicious, but the lamb chops are too tough and have very little lean meat.

In short, if I want to satisfy my longing for Xinjiang, I would definitely choose Ali or Baizuan first. But if I am in the Dongsi area for an exhibition or a play, grabbing a meal at Crescent Moon is fine too.













January 21, Yangfang Shengli Hot Pot, Liujiayao branch

It rarely snows, so tonight we had a hot pot at Yangfang Shengli Shuanrou in Liujiayao, which opened in 2021! Although Yangfang Shengli Shuanrou is very famous, this was my first time eating there. I used to think they were mostly in the north, so I was surprised to see one open in the south.

To give a quick introduction, the main branch of Yangfang Shengli Shuanrou is located in a place called Xiguanshi. Hui Muslims from Xiguanshi followed Prince Yan north to Beijing in the early Ming Dynasty. Because they lived near the main trade route from Beijing to Zhangjiakou and were skilled in martial arts, many Xiguanshi Hui Muslims opened security escort agencies outside Qianmen during the Qing Dynasty. They specialized in protecting goods across the five northwestern provinces, mainly serving wealthy Shanxi merchants. People say Li Wuye, the master of the magic pellet in the novel 'Shi Gong An', was a Hui Muslim from Xiguanshi. The depictions of Li Guoliang, the 'Little Hero of the Golden Bow', and the Dongguangyu Escort Agency outside Qianmen in the novel 'Yongzheng Jianxia Tu' vividly show the life of the Xiguanshi Hui Muslim escort agencies during the Qing Dynasty. Because it sits on the essential path to the Mongolian grasslands, the mutton hot pot here is also very famous.

I feel that the Yangfang Shengli Shuanrou in Liujiayao is excellent in terms of environment, service, meat quality, and vegetable freshness. Our family was very satisfied, and we will come here often for gatherings. We ordered their whole lamb combo (lamb brain, 'half-side cloud' flank, lamb tendon, lamb spine, lamb 'emperor' cut, lamb rib, and lamb shoulder), a vegetable platter, crunchy tripe mushrooms, and frozen tofu. First, they opened a bottle of Nongfu Spring water and poured it into the pot, which felt very sincere, haha. They use 6-8 month old black-headed white lambs from Xilingol. The meat is truly fresh, and I personally feel the quality is better than the hot pot places I usually visit near Dongsi (I won't name them). Their pickled garlic (tangsuan) is also homemade, and the flavor is noticeably richer than the store-bought garlic at most hot pot restaurants.

Also, even though the place was very noisy during the dinner rush, the servers came immediately whenever we called. They never ignored us, so it feels like they really know how to run a business.



















January 27, Qiqihar BBQ at Toupiqi.

In the evening, we went to Toupiqi BBQ in the Weilaiyu area of Changying. It is a chain of Qiqihar-style BBQ, and this Changying branch is halal. We ordered freshly sliced family-style marinated meat, beef tongue, pickled cabbage (suancai), Dandong yellow clams, Jixi cold noodles (lengmian), and grilled vegetables. At the front desk, we helped ourselves to shredded tofu, peanuts, Korean kimchi, cantaloupe, oranges, and pumpkin porridge. The dipping sauces were also quite varied.

I really liked their yellow clams. When the cold noodles arrived, they were clumped together, likely because they had just come out of the fridge, but the taste was quite good. The marinated meat was okay, but the beef tongue felt a bit tough and the texture wasn't great. Overall, their food is decent, but I personally think their BBQ isn't as good as Qingu (though Qingu's fried chicken isn't great), I still prefer Qingu's BBQ. Speaking of which, Beijing now has Heilongjiang iron pot stew (Hao Shu) and BBQ, we are just missing a traditional Heilongjiang home-style restaurant! There used to be a Heilongjiang restaurant in Xihongmen called Xingyuege. I had their sweet and sour pork (guobaorou) and steamed dumplings (shaomai) there, but unfortunately, they have closed down.



















January 29, Uyghur restaurant Xiapuna.

After ice skating in the afternoon, I ate stir-fried lamb liver, braised lamb chops with green beans, and home-style mixed noodles (banmian) at the Uyghur restaurant Xiapuna on Shenlu Street. We arrived at Xinjiang lunch time, and sure enough, all the diners in the room were Uyghur, haha.

Their stir-fried lamb liver is super delicious and incredibly tender. It is better than any grilled liver I have had at restaurants in Beijing, and after eating it, I do not even want to eat grilled liver anymore. The braised lamb chops with green beans (jiangdou) are also great. The beans are actually yardlong beans, and they are crispy and fragrant after being fried. The lamb must be from Xinjiang because it lacks the gamey smell found in Beijing. The flatbread (nang) is an oily version that was fried again, and soaking it in the lamb chop sauce is so appetizing.

The meat in the home-style mixed noodles is delicious, but they give you too little. The overall flavor is a bit bland, and the noodles are so thin that I first thought they were dried noodles (guamian). But they taste chewy, so they must be hand-pulled.













January 31, New Year's Eve dinner.

A dish I made with simple stewed meat.





Stewed meat over rice.



Everyone worked together to knead the dough and mix the filling.











February 1, eating dumplings (jiaozi).

We ate the dumplings as we wrapped them, including lamb with lentils, beef with fennel, and beef with celery, using both Urumqi and Beijing wrapping styles. They were wrapped perfectly and tasted super delicious. Then we opened the Laba garlic (labasuan) that we pickled on Laba Festival, which also turned out great and smelled amazing. We used the leftover dough after finishing the filling to make hand-cut noodles.



















Then we had pan-fried dumplings (jianjiao) as well. Collapse Read »

Reposted from the web

Summary: Beijing Winter Diary — Mosques, Halal Food and Muslim Heritage is presented here as a firsthand travel account in clear English, beginning with this scene: After ice skating in the afternoon, we went to Hongbinlou on Zhanlan Road for dinner. The account keeps its focus on Beijing Mosques, Halal Food, Muslim Heritage while preserving the names, places, food, and historical details from the Chinese source.



February 2, Hongbinlou Zhanlan Road branch.

After ice skating in the afternoon, we went to Hongbinlou on Zhanlan Road for dinner. We ordered stir-fried chicken with walnuts and bean paste (taoren jiangbao jiding), braised sheep eyes (du yangyan), stir-fried seasonal vegetables, and a mixed corn stew (yumi quanhui). It was my first time having the mixed corn stew. It contained fish maw, fish cartilage, diced chicken, and diced bamboo shoots. The texture was very rich, and everyone liked it. We actually came here for the roast lamb, but after arriving, we found that the roast lamb at the Zhanlan Road branch was more than twice as expensive as at the Chaoyangmen branch. It was a bit too pricey, so we didn't order it.

Hongbinlou has long been Beijing's most expensive traditional halal stir-fry restaurant. It has always used the title of "Beijing's Number One Halal Restaurant," and I think it really lives up to the name. Every time I come here to eat, I never order a bad dish. Everything is delicious and worth the price. I can usually eat two bowls of rice with their stir-fried dishes like the honey-glazed lamb (ta simi), braised meat strips (ba routiao), and stir-fried chicken with bean paste.

Hongbinlou was founded in Tianjin in 1853 and moved to Beijing in 1955. Its "beef and lamb cooking techniques (Hongbinlou whole sheep banquet production techniques)" are listed as a national intangible cultural heritage. During the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China era, the whole sheep banquet was a high-level feast in traditional Muslim restaurants in the Beijing-Tianjin area. Hongbinlou's famous chef Song Shaoshan created a signature banquet featuring 120 dishes.













Cracking melon seeds while watching a movie.



I used the leftover cut noodles from making dumplings to make minced meat and eggplant noodles.





February 4, 798 electric grilled skewers.

While walking around 798, I found an electric skewer shop run by Hui Muslims from Niujie. We ordered lamb skewers, chicken skewers, and grilled prawns. I wanted to try the boneless grilled hairtail, but unfortunately, it was sold out. The shop has many old photos of Niujie and some vintage items.













February 4, Kolkata restaurant Sadhu.

After seeing the exhibition at the Guanfu Museum, Zainab said she really wanted to drink yogurt, so we headed straight to the place Zainab thinks makes the best yogurt in Beijing—the Indian Kolkata Muslim restaurant Sadhu in Beiluogu Lane. Their thin yogurt drink (lassi) is well-deservedly the best in Beijing. For thick yogurt, I still have to say it's the Kashgar Mahmut Restaurant on Baiyunguan Street.

Lassi comes from the Sanskrit word Lasika, which originally meant serum. Lassi comes in sweet and salty versions. The sweet version is mainly found in the Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Sindh regions, while the salty version is widely distributed in other parts of North India. Sadhu's lassi tastes slightly sweet and is mainly defined by the aroma of the yogurt, which is why Zainab likes it the most.

Besides the thin lassi, I also ordered a vegetable yogurt called raita, which had diced cucumber and diced carrots in it. I think it is very refreshing when paired with curry. Raita is a Hindi word formed by combining the Sanskrit words "rajika" and "tiktaka," which originally meant "black mustard seeds" and "pungent," because making raita requires frying black mustard seeds and cumin before mixing them into chopped vegetables and then adding them to the yogurt.

We ordered two types of curry, beef Bhuna and vegetable Korma. Bhuna means 'fried' in Urdu. It usually includes onion, ginger, and garlic. The curry is fried in hot oil until it becomes a thick paste. I think it tastes better than regular curry. Korma is a type of curry stewed with coconut milk or yogurt. The word 'Korma' comes from the Turkic word 'Qawirma,' which originally meant fried. In Urdu, the meaning changed to stew. Korma is a classic Mughal court dish that started in the 16th century. People say Shah Jahan and his guests ate Korma at the banquet for the completion of the Taj Mahal.

When ordering a main dish at Saduli, I usually choose South Asian flatbread (Naan) or fried rice (Biryani). This time, I picked something I had never tried there before: raisin pilaf (Shejhani Pulao). The style of cooking rice in a large pot only became popular from Andalusia to Afghanistan during the Abbasid Caliphate. The word pilaf (Pilāv) comes from Persian. The earliest record of pilaf dates back to the 10th century in the writings of the Persian scholar Ibn Sina, so some people call him the father of modern pilaf. After the 16th century, pilaf became popular in India along with the rise of the Mughal Empire.

We also ordered grilled salmon (Tikka). Tikka comes from the Turkic word tikkü, which means 'piece.' The Mughal Empire brought this method of grilling spice-marinated boneless meat or vegetable chunks to India. The most common Tikka is chicken.

















February 5, Xilaisun

After listening to Wang Yuebo perform the Sword Hero Map (Jianxia Tu) at the Lao She Teahouse, I strolled to Xilaisun at Hepingmen for dinner. It was super busy after four o'clock. It seems Beijingers don't want to cook at home during the Chinese New Year, haha.

Zainab pushed me to try something new instead of always ordering their stir-fried chicken cubes with bean paste (jiangbao jiding) and Ma Lianliang duck. We ordered meatballs in sauce (liu wanzi), braised mixed vegetables (shao quansu), and dry-braised sturgeon (gan shao xunyu), plus our must-order bamboo shoot jasmine soup. I have to say, everything at Xilaisun tastes good. Their meatballs in sauce have a great texture! At least they are stuffed much better than the fillings at some unnamed restaurants where you can actually taste the meat, while other places just taste like starch. Their dry-braised sturgeon isn't the traditional Shandong cuisine (Lu cuisine) style. It's sweet, sour, and spicy, which feels a bit like the Southwest region. I really like it! The sturgeon has no bones, so it's great to eat with rice. I noticed that besides the Ma Lianliang duck, the dry-braised sturgeon was the most popular dish on every table. The chef has to go catch a fish from the tank every little while.



















February 7, Beef Stew

I made old-fashioned beef stew with green beans, button mushrooms, potatoes, and carrots. I personally think it tastes better than what you get in restaurants! It takes at least an hour and a half to make, so I don't usually have time for it.







February 8, Changying Equator Yakiniku Lunch Set

A twisty and surprising lunch experience in Changying at noon. First, we went to a Korean barbecue place, but it was closed for a break. Then we tried a Qiqihar-style barbecue place we like, but they had just stopped serving five minutes earlier so the staff could go for COVID testing, so we had to go to a Japanese-style restaurant called Chidao BBQ. To our surprise, Chidao BBQ now offers Japanese set meals (teishoku) for lunch! This must be the only halal Japanese set meal in Beijing.

We bought teriyaki chicken rice and beef sukiyaki, and also ordered matsutake mushroom soup and fried squid tentacles. The set meal comes with a salad, steamed egg custard (chawanmushi), miso soup, seaweed salad, and a mochi dessert (daifuku). The teriyaki chicken rice tasted pretty good! Next time I want to try the beef rice. Actually, you can also order the sukiyaki as a single dish that comes with rice.



















February 12, Maidebao

We ate steak pizza and a small whole chicken at Maidebao in Galaxy SOHO, Chaoyangmen. Their pizza is packed with toppings; the crust is crispy and the middle is tender, which gives it a great texture that both Zainab and I really love. The owners are very warm toward fellow Muslims (dosti), and if they aren't busy, we always chat about the faith, so visiting them is a treat for both the spirit and the stomach.









February 15, hand-pulled noodles (latiaozi) made by Zainab.

I just love the hand-pulled noodles Zainab makes; it's a real perk of being a Xinjiang son-in-law.







Sweet rice balls (yuanxiao) and almond tofu in Changying.







February 16, Yanlanlou at Dongsishitiao.

At Yanlanlou in Dongsishitiao, we ate a pound of lamb neck, hand-pulled noodles (lamian), sweet pea soup (huidouzi), three kinds of small mushrooms, pea sprout soup with beans, and corn steamed cake (fagao). I personally prefer their lamb neck because it is leaner than the rib meat. I think their meat is quite tender for Beijing standards! Of course, it still doesn't compare to the one I had at Fuyuan Noodle Restaurant in Yinchuan, which was the most tender lamb neck I have ever eaten.

Actually, every time I go to Yanlanlou, I order the lentil and sparrow-tongue noodles; the slightly sour, warm soup is perfect for winter, but this time I saw everyone at the next table eating hand-pulled noodles, so I got tempted and changed my order on the spot, haha. In the summer, I prefer their fermented vegetable noodles (jiangshuimian), as the fermented broth is very refreshing. They also serve sturgeon and mandarin fish made with fermented vegetable broth (jiangshui), though I am not sure how they taste.

Zainab likes their pea sprout soup with beans (doutang wandou miao), which is like a vegetable porridge and hard to find in other restaurants. We packed some corn steamed cake (yumi fagao) to take home, and it tastes even better when toasted in a pan the next day.















February 18: Made zucchini pancakes (hutazi) and stir-fried kohlrabi strips with meat at home.

I made zucchini pancakes (hutazi) and stir-fried kohlrabi strips with meat at home. The zucchini pancakes were a bit thick, but they still tasted good. The kohlrabi strips were stir-fried in lamb fat.









February 20: Turkish clay pot beef (Testikebabı) at Xiting Xiuse.

We had Turkish clay pot beef (Testikebabı) for lunch at Xiting Xiuse. The chef cracked the pot open when serving, just like when I last had it in Istanbul!

Testikebabı is a popular dish in central Anatolia and the western Black Sea region. It is made by putting beef, mushrooms, tomatoes, and shallots into a clay pot, sealing the opening with bread, and slow-cooking it in an oven. After it is cooked, they heat butter on an iron plate, crack the pot open, and pour the bread and stew onto the plate. It smells amazing!

Zainab and I both love Testikebabı. The tomato flavor is so rich, and it is delicious dipped with bread. The beef is quite lean, so those who prefer a mix of fat and lean meat might find it a bit dry.















We had a very rich Turkish brunch at Xiting Xiuse, and Zainab ordered her favorite chickpea dip (Hummus).

There were four types of cheese: Greek feta sheep milk cheese, Turkish Tulum goat milk cheese, Turkish Eski kaşar sheep and goat milk blend, and southern Italian Mozzarella buffalo milk cheese.

In Turkish, Tulum refers to cheese aged inside a goat skin. The traditional method involves stuffing the cheese into a goat skin, tying it tightly with rope, and keeping it in a cellar or cave at 10-12 degrees for up to 6 months. Eski kaşar is a hard yellow cheese that can be stored for up to 3 years after air-drying.

Then there were 3 types of Turkish jam, 2 types of Turkish olives, sesame paste (Tahini), grape molasses (Pekmez), clotted cream (Kaymak), Turkish honey, Turkish fried spring rolls (Sigara Böreği), Turkish beef sausage with eggs (Sucuklu yumurta), bread, cucumbers, and other dishes.

Tahini comes from Levantine Arabic and originally meant to grind. As the Ottoman Empire expanded, this sesame paste spread to the eastern Mediterranean, southern Caucasus, and North Africa, becoming a common bread dip in Middle Eastern restaurants. In Turkey, sesame paste (Tahini) is usually served with grape molasses (Pekmez). Pekmez comes from a Turkic language and first appeared in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects written by Mahmud al-Kashgari in the 1070s. Pekmez is a syrup made by boiling grapes with crushed carob seeds, sometimes with added pomegranate or mulberry.

The word Kaymak comes from a Turkic language and originally meant to melt, also appearing first in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects. Kaymak is made by simmering milk for 2 hours, then letting it cool and ferment for several days, resulting in a milk fat content as high as 60%.

The sujuk in sujuklu yumurta first appeared in the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects. It is made by grinding beef, adding tail fat and other fats, stuffing it into casings, tying it with string, and then letting it ferment slowly.













February 25: Mother-in-law's huoldun.

On my mother-in-law's first day in Beijing, we ate huoldun soaked in naan, made with a front leg of lamb she carried all the way from Urumqi!







February 25: Mother-in-law's big plate chicken with belt noodles.

The second meal my mother-in-law made was big plate chicken with belt noodles (dapanji pidaimian). She brought the free-range chicken with her from Urumqi.







February 26: Mother-in-law's lamb hand-torn noodles.

The third meal my mother-in-law made was lamb hand-torn noodles (jiupianzi).







February 26: The Syrian restaurant One Thousand and One Nights in Sanlitun.

We ate the famous Syrian snack, Arais beef pies, at the Syrian restaurant One Thousand and One Nights in Sanlitun. Arais is known as a Syrian sandwich. It is made by stuffing pita bread with meat, brushing it with oil, and grilling it. The grilled pita bread is very crispy, and the meat filling is very tender. Arais comes in chicken, lamb, and beef versions, and sometimes cheese is added.

Arais is the plural form of the Arabic word for bride. People think this dish symbolizes a wedding between the white pita bread, like a wedding dress, and the meat filling, so brides in some places eat Arais at their weddings.





We had kofta meatball yogurt, eggplant puree kebab, chickpeas with tomatoes and vegetables, rice porridge soup, lentil soup, and vegetable soup. The owner served every dish politely.



















February 28: Iftar for the Night of Ascension.

For the Iftar on the Night of Ascension, my mother-in-law made meatball soup using meat ground fresh on Douban Hutong. The secret to fried meatballs is to pour hot oil into the meat mixture first!











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